Fig. 1.—Mixed Evergreen Forest on the edge of Barombo Lake (Elephant Lake), Cotton Trees in foreground.

Frontispiece.

[7]PREFACE

While going round inspecting timber areas being worked by European firms in Nigeria, I have often been asked for a book with illustrations showing the different kinds of trees which might be felled, and also giving some account of the trees themselves, as well as the main work of the Forest Department. It is with the idea of trying to supply this want that I have mainly compiled this work, in the hope that, however imperfect it may be, the various timber getters and users in Nigeria may find it useful.

I have not attempted to give accurate descriptions of the trees, as this has already been done by Mr. Foster in his work Notes on Nigerian Trees and Plants, and I would refer readers to that volume, and to the botanical works, such as Useful Plants of Nigeria, issued under the authority of the Director of Kew Gardens, and the Flora of Tropical Africa, by Oliver; but only refer to some specific feature of the trees that are most common or useful, by which they can be recognized by an ordinary observer without botanical knowledge.

I wish to acknowledge with thanks the assistance given to me by the Central and Southern Secretaries for permission to use the annual Forest Report from the year 1906 onwards.

I wish also to express my thanks to the Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies for permission to use my Reports on the Forests of Sierra Leone and the Afforestation of Togo.

To Mr. H. N. Thompson, the Chief Conservator of Forests of Nigeria, I am indebted for much useful information obtained from his Report on the Gold Coast Forests.

To Mr. R. E. Dennett, Deputy Chief Conservator of Forests, who has given me much help and advice in compiling this work, and more especially for reading through the proofs, I tender my grateful thanks.

[8]Two most valuable chapters on the Forests and botanical features of the Northern Provinces of Nigeria were written by Dr. J. M. Dalziel, to whom I owe grateful thanks for his encouragement in this work.

My greatest thanks are due to Mr. C. E. Lane-Poole, Commissioner of Forests, Victoria, for the use of the list of the Sierra Leone trees.

To M. Chevalier I return grateful thanks for his list of the Ivory Coast trees.

For the constant and unfailing interest and devotion to the work of Miss Christina E. Lacy, acting as amanuensis, I beg to extend my heartfelt thanks.

Further thanks are also due to my wife, who has lent not only practical assistance, but has been the mainspring of inspiration for the completion of this work.

[9]CONTENTS

[11]ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 2.—Red Ironwood (Lophira procera) in the Forest, Gumah.

Fig. 3.—Mature Cola Tree (Cola vera), growing in Fundo Village, Protectorate of Sierra Leone.

Fig. 4.—View of Gumah Mountain, from the Gumah.

[17]WEST AFRICAN FORESTS
AND FORESTRY

CHAPTER I

THE FORESTS OF WESTERN AFRICA

From a large scale-map of Africa, the various British West African Colonies and Protectorates, as well as Liberia, French Ivory Coast, the late German Colonies of Togo and Cameroons, can be seen on the western side of that Continent. In fact, these territories are all within the Tropics, and also between the latitudes of 13° North in the Gambia to nearly the Equator in the Cameroons, and between longitude of 17° West to 10° East. Roughly speaking, Upper Guinea, as this part is usually called, covers an area of 100 to 200 miles wide by a length of over 1,500 miles, as a sylvan belt mainly of one type of vegetation, which botanically, however, only begins to alter as the boundary of the Cameroons is approached in the eastern part of Nigeria. Therefore one finds several trees extending right through this area, and also an almost unbroken forest all the way along the coast line, and roughly 100 to 150 miles inland. The width of the forest varies rather according to the aspect of the coast line, because the prevalent wind being south-west, the greatest rainfall, and thus the heaviest type of forest, occurs when the coast line runs at right angles to the prevailing wind. This occurs, for instance, near Calabar, Nigeria in the Cameroons, part of the Gold Coast near Axim, and Sierra Leone near Freetown. In some instances this effect is accentuated by the proximity of mountains near the coast, as, for instance, north of Calabar and north of Benin. One tree, which might be taken as a type, is the Rhodesian Mahogany, Afzelia Africana, which is found right in this belt of forest on its northern side. As the name implies, it is also found in Rhodesia, near the Victoria Falls. Mahogany, Khaya Senegalensis, is another tree found in the Gambia, also in Nigeria right up to the Cameroon border, over 1,500 miles away.

However, in this huge forest belt there are great variations in the rainfall, from 20 to over 175 inches in the Oban Hills of Nigeria. There are also, naturally, variations in soil and elevation, which make differences[18] in the character of the forest. The proximity to the sea causes yet another difference in the type of vegetation, combined as it often is with low elevation.

Broadly speaking, then, one can differentiate several distinct types of forest, though owing to slight changes in a locality the one merges into the other and very sharp boundary lines cannot be drawn.

I. The Mangrove Swamps are usually near the sea coast, though not always at the sea coast; a strip of Evergreen Forest is usually found actually on the sandy dunes of the sea coast. The Mangrove Swamps also extend up the rivers near the coast as a fringe a mile or more wide.

II. The Evergreen Forest is usually found on the sea coast, also extending inland up the rivers, and also on low land up to an elevation of a few hundred feet, as, for instance, the forest on the banks of the Calabar River.

III. The Freshwater Swamp Forests are also found in this type of locality.

IV. The Mixed intermediate Forest is found usually where the rainfall does not exceed 60 inches, or in slightly hilly country, and contains a few deciduous trees. Typical trees of this forest are the Triplochiton Nigericum and Mimusops multinervis. It contains both evergreen and deciduous trees.

V. The Fringing Forest, or “Gallerie” Forest of the Germans, is found at the edge of rivers or lakes, where the rainfall is otherwise too low for the mixed deciduous forests.

VI. The Savannah Forest, sometimes so-called Dry-zone Forest, usually occurs with a rainfall of 30 to 50 inches. The typical tree of this is the Lophira alata.

VII. The Evergreen Forest of the hills, chiefly above an altitude of 2,000 or 3,000 feet. It is especially noticeable on Mount Itakum and the Boji Hills (elevation 5,000 feet).

VIII. The Open Orchard Forest, with shrubby trees of small growth.

These, then, roughly follow the Œcological Divisions according to Warming, which are as follows:

• Mangrove Swamp,
• True Savannah,
• Treeless Savannah, low and high grass,
• Bush Savannah,
• Tree Savannah,
• Savannah Forest,
• Sclerophyllus formations, such as
• Bush and Forest,
• Bamboo Forest.

[19]Forests are in addition named after the locality, such as Benin Forests, Oban Forests, Ondo Forests. Again, yet another nomenclature is after the kind of tree represented, such as Evergreen Forest, where all the trees are evergreen all the year round; for instance, Calabar Forests, Ondo, South Benin.

The mixed forests and intermediate forests, where the trees are both evergreen and deciduous, growing side by side, such as Olokemeji Forests, Benin Forests, Obubra Forests, and Bende Forests. Thus summarising the Nigerian Forests, we get the following formations:

[20]CHAPTER II

THE GAMBIA

In the early part of the nineteenth century a considerable quantity of African Mahogany, obtained from Khaya Senegalensis, a dry-zone mahogany-tree, was shipped to England; in fact, this was the original source of African Mahogany, as also it was the first tree from which it was obtained. Even now this tree is one of the most prevalent in the strip of land on both banks of the Gambia, so far as British territory is concerned.

At the present time no mahogany is being shipped from the Gambia, but recently an Ordinance was passed regulating the cutting of firewood and forest trees.

Forests in the ordinary sense of the word cannot be said to exist in the Gambia, but no doubt a considerable amount of timber could be obtained from the dry-zone country. The total length of the colony is 300 miles, and approximately 5 miles wide, on either side of the Gambia River, which makes it in the aggregate a considerable tract of country, in all 4,500 square miles, of which the colony proper occupies 4 square miles.

So far only Rosewood (Pterocarpus erinaceus), Mahogany (Khaya Senegalensis), and small pieces of Baywood, probably also a mahogany, have been reported from the Gambia. In 1908 a certain amount of wood was cut for the making of charcoal by a man from the Canary Islands. In 1909, 102 tons of charcoal were exported, and in 1910, 176 tons, valued at £634. Since then no other returns are available, so apparently this industry has come to an end. There is no Forest Officer in the Gambia, and no proposals for Forest Reserves have been put forward by the Government. Part of the land near the mouth of the Gambia is swampy and covered with the usual Mangrove forests.

In the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. viii, 1910, p. 244, it is stated that the specimens of rosewood and mahogany forwarded to the Imperial Institute were reported on as follows:

Rosewood (Dalbergia sp.), reddish-yellow with darker lines and red pores, solid and compact, resembling rosewood except in colour. The timber would not pass as rosewood on the market. It has an[21] agreeable odour, is hard and heavy, weighing 45½ lb. per cubic foot. It turned and polished well, sawed very easily, but was difficult to plane; planing left a smooth, bright surface.

Mahogany (Khaya Senegalensis) may be looked upon as inferior baywood, the wood light in colour, of poor figure, hard to plane, but when planed leaves the surface bright and woolly in alternate bands; very cross grained, sawed and turned easily. Weight, 41½ lb. per cubic foot. Should be very useful locally, but probably not of sufficient value for much export trade.

Even in this comparatively small colony a certain amount of forest land should be preserved, more especially that which is unsuitable for agriculture. In every country there is always some poor or rocky land which is not favourable to the growing of agricultural crops.

The oil palm is another useful tree, which yields the well-known palm oil and kernels; however, here the oil is required locally for alimentary purposes, and therefore only the palm kernels are exported.

The following shows the exports for five years:

It will be noticed that the very high prices ruling for part of 1913 and the beginning of 1914 had the effect of causing increased exports to be made.

Here, as in the case of other products, planting could be undertaken with advantage, as the yield of kernels and oil is good; even if the increased amount of oil produced was sold locally, the increased output of kernels would find a market in England, where they are needed.

It is a tree which allows cultivation of field crops to be made between the oil palms for several years before the palms become too big and shut out the light necessary for field crops. In the drier climate of the Gambia a planting distance of probably 16 feet would be sufficient to ensure a good yield, and yet give sufficient distance between the trees to allow room for them even when mature.

If an Agricultural or Forest Department, which at present does not exist in the Gambia, could not supply young seedlings or nuts for planting, one of the trading firms could secure them from one of the other West Coast Protectorates. Of course, in many cases,[22] if the natives could be induced to believe that a good price would always be paid for kernels, they would no doubt make small plantations of oil palms themselves, as some fruit always falls to the ground in the picking, is thus not boiled, and so is suitable for furnishing seed for planting. It is, of course, inadvisable to plant boiled nuts, as many do not germinate, owing to the germ having been destroyed by the boiling of the fruit; others do, however, as can be seen in the young oil palms sprouting from heaps of uncracked nuts which the natives leave near the villages.

[23]APPENDIX I

FOREST FEES IN GAMBIA

A new list was published by the Legislative Council in Gambia which fixes the different rates of fees for the right of felling useful timber for export.

The fees are as follows:

[24]APPENDIX II

THE GAMBIA—FOREST EXPORTS

Fig. 5.—African Oak (Oldfieldia Africana), showing bole in middle foreground, near Bureh Town Bridge.

Fig. 6.—African Oak (Oldfieldia Africana), showing Scaly Bark at base of tree, the late Mr. C. W. Smythe standing beside it.

To face p. 24.

[25]CHAPTER III

SIERRA LEONE

I. The Forests.

The Colony and Protectorate of Sierra Leone cover an area of approximately 34,000 square miles, or, to make it more comprehensible, it is almost the same size as Ireland. Probably in the earliest times the whole territory was covered with some kind of arborescent growth, varying from open savannah and deciduous forest to close, impenetrable evergreen rain forest.

Now scarcely 1 per cent. of this forest remains, one of the most important tracts being the Sierra Leone or Peninsular Mountain Forest, situated on the mountain due east of Freetown. The whole of this region was once covered with forest, now reduced to an area of approximately 48 square miles, or 30,000 acres. All this tract down to the 500-foot control line has been reserved as a permanent forest, so that eventually the whole peninsular forest will have an area of 75 square miles. Illustrations Nos. 2 and 4 show a general view of these forests.

Other important mountain forests are those situated on the Kassewe Hills, Kagnari Mountains, Kambui Hills, Panguma Hills, Nimmini Mountains, Loma Mountains, Bunbola Hills, and Maramper Hills. In addition to these areas, timber trees are felled at Kangahan and Yonni, as well as in the peninsular mountains and Maramper Hills, especially for local use.

Turning now to a consideration of the forests more in detail, one naturally first deals with the most accessible ones, i.e. of the peninsular mountains. From the beautiful harbour of Freetown, Sierra Leone, one sees the edge of these forests between Leicester Peak and Sugar Loaf Mountains. From these two points it skirts the hill station, extending thence roughly parallel to the sea as far as Kent; the largest wooded slopes face the ocean, only a narrow strip of forest being found on the landward side of the mountains near Burehtown and John Obey. The forest extends practically from the water’s edge on the estuary of the Bureh River right up the mountains to an elevation of 2,000 feet, with a rainfall of upwards of 160 inches per year. Silvan vegetation is very luxuriant, the giant trees standing[26] close together, often entwined and joined to each other by various large creepers, the whole forming an almost impenetrable grove, into which only the diffused light of the sun reaches. The undergrowth is not very thick, except where old trees have fallen or where mature trees have been felled; this is partly owing to the dense shade of the tall trees, and therefore the trunks of these trees can be seen. A large Cedar Mahogany 23 feet in circumference was seen. This specimen of a mahogany was one of the largest trees found, and shows to what size the trees attain in this peninsular forest. One of the commonest trees found is the Red Ironwood, or sometimes called in Sierra Leone Ironpost, botanically known as Lophira procera. A picture of a large specimen of one of this species is shown as illustration No. 2. Another very common tree is a species of Mimusops, known as pearwood, or sometimes mahogany, when sold as timber. The African Violetwood, sometimes known as Blackwood, is comparatively common. Rhodesian Mahogany, usually called Kontah, botanically known as Afzelia Africana, is also found. Real African Oak (Oldfieldia Africana) is seen singly scattered throughout forests. A patch of true Gum Copal trees is found, as well as isolated specimens in some parts of the forest. Rock Elm (Chlorophora excelsa) is seen both in the forest and in the clearings made for farms. The Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) is sparsely distributed in the forest, but more frequent in the abandoned farms. The above-named trees are representative of some of the very large number of hardwoods and other trees of economic value in the forest. There are, however, also a very large number of softwoods found scattered amongst the other trees in the forest; a beautiful Whitewood (Alstonia Congensis) is, for instance, one of such softwoods. The Cotton Tree (Eriodendron anfractuosum) is probably the one most commonly found. Various Albizzias are also met with in a similar manner.

II. Notes on Timber Trees.

Taking now the different species of timber trees individually, the following are most important:

1. Real African Oak (Oldfieldia Africana), which is termed Tortorza by the Timanis and Paulai by the Mendis. As illustration No. 5 shows, this is a very large and tall tree. It often attains a bole length of 50 feet and a girth of 16 feet. It is found singly, scattered through the forest. The habit of its branches, open crown, and greyish bark make it look not unlike a European oak. In reality the bark is scaly, gradually peeling off in flakes. The tree in illustration No. 6 shows this characteristic peculiarity to advantage, and also shows a medium-sized tree, approximately 10 feet in girth. The tree fruits moderately, and has an indehiscent capsule not unlike[27] the shape, size and colour of an oak-apple. The capsule has five faint ribs on its surface, but contains only three seeds. The little seedling, with light grey stem and white lenticels, is easily recognized. It usually has also only three leaflets on its leaves, instead of forming true digitate leaves as a full-grown tree. The sapling once started shows fairly rapid growth, and during the early years stands a good deal of shade. It should therefore be classified as a slight shade-bearer. African Oak is a dark reddish-brown wood, which is very hard and most durable. It has, of course, a much closer grain than ordinary oak. A very smooth surface can be obtained by planing the timber. Locally, small trees are cut for conversion by pit-saw into timber for boat keels. This timber was exported as teak from Sierra Leone 1827 to 1835 for use in the English Navy. It was afterwards lost sight of, though the natives continued to use it locally. During 1908 a few round logs of short length (12-16 feet) of this timber were exported to England and sold in a Liverpool market for 2s. 6d. per cubic foot (extreme measure).

2. Ironpost, or African Oak, or Red Ironwood (Lophira procera), is the most common tree throughout the peninsula. According to the Conservator of Forests in Sierra Leone, 80 per cent. of the trees of the peninsular forest are Lophira procera. All stages of growth are found, from the smallest seedlings to the largest tree, over 100 feet high and 20 feet in girth. In the forest the tree has an orange-coloured bark, which rapidly turns grey when exposed to the rays of the sun. The bole is not always quite cylindrical, especially near the base, where it often develops rather angular root protuberances. This seems to occur more often on rocky ground, such as that where the tree is found in the peninsula. For a similar reason the bole is not always straight, though in the ordinary way the tree has a comparatively small crown with short branches. Thus, in proportion to the size of the tree, the bole is very long, the twigs are thickish, and the long thin paper-knifelike leaves appear at the ends of them. Seedlings seem to come up wherever suitable conditions of reproduction are found. A clear bole is typical of these trees in the pole stage of growth. Illustration No. 2 shows a large specimen on the edge of the forest, and there are many large trees with the peculiar root protuberances, growing in the forest. The timber is very hard and of a dark red colour, which it retains when dry. The heartwood forms comparatively early in the life of the tree, and although the sapwood is white, it is almost as hard as the heartwood. For this reason comparatively small trees yield timber, and thus can be felled earlier than trees in which the heartwood forms later. Of course, in this connection it should not be forgotten that the market does not desire logs of too small a size, i.e. of 18 inches or under, when squared. Locally this[28] is known as Ironpost, and is sold for house-building, and, as its name implies, it is used for the uprights of the house. The Public Works Department have a regular schedule of timbers which are used, and this timber is mentioned amongst them, and is bought from native contractors at 3d. per superficial foot for boards, and 3d. to 6d. per linear foot for beams and posts. This timber has been used as a substitute for real African Oak, when it is sold as African Oak. A regular supply of logs could be obtained from the peninsular forest.

3. Cedar Mahogany (Pseudocedrela sp.; termed Bissimi by the Mendis). This tree, which grows to a very large size, is not very prevalent. The largest tree, some 23 feet in girth, was found above the Gumah. The bole is usually very long and straight, which makes it very cylindrical. This last characteristic of the tree is all the more accentuated by its having no root projections at its base. This species appears to be one of the largest trees in the forest. It is apparently a very fast-growing tree, forming heartwood comparatively early, though the sapwood is rather wide (up to 10 inches in a tree 7 feet in diameter). This timber has not been exported, but wood from similar trees on the coast has been exported and sold in the European market as mahogany (scented). There is no reason to believe, therefore, that the wood from this tree would not fetch a similar price. Owing to this tree being so fullwooded, a larger proportion of the bole can be converted into logs than is the case with other kinds of mahogany trees which have large root flanges.

4. African Walnut (Lovoa Klaineana). This is a medium-sized tree of the Mahogany family, which, owing to the brown colour of the wood, has been termed African Walnut in the timber trade. Although not very prevalent, it yields one of the timbers suitable for export.

5. Satin Mahogany (Guarea sp.) is another medium-sized tree which is prevalent in most parts of the peninsula. The grain of the timber is of course similar to Mahogany, as the tree from which it is obtained belongs to the Mahogany family. The timber when planed has a satiny sheen on it, which may make it valuable in the European market. It has not been cut for local use.

6. African Pearwood (Mimusops sp.) is a large tree with a good bole of fair length. Only a moderate number of this species were found, but there are at least two, if not three, other species of Mimusops which yield a timber which has been sold as mahogany. The grain of the timber of the first-named tree is more open, sometimes figured, and of a lighter reddish colour than the other species. These other trees yield a dark-red timber of close grain, which is much harder than mahogany. These Mimusops are found at a higher altitude than most timber trees. The forest, therefore, above an elevation of 2,000 feet, is much more valuable owing to the presence of this tree. These[29] trees attain a girth of 12 feet and a height of upwards of 150 feet. The bark of the trunk of the tree is smoother than that of mahogany.

7. White Mahogany (Canarium Schweinfurthii), also known sometimes as Gaboon Mahogany, is a very tall forest tree which attains a bole length of 70 feet, with a girth of 10 feet. It is not very plentiful, but is one of the light-coloured species of mahogany. It has a definite shipping value of 2s. 6d. in the round per cubic foot.

8. African Mammee or Mammy Apple (Ochrocarpus Africanus) is a large tree attaining a girth of 10 feet, with a bole length of 30 feet. It is moderately prevalent. The timber has a pretty grain, and is of a reddish colour, which is similar to mahogany.

9. Dita (Detarium Senegalense) is a large tree with the bole length of 30 feet and a girth of 12 feet. Although it is not a very common tree, it is a useful addition to the number of trees which yield timber similar to mahogany. The fruit is large, has an edible pericarp, and is sold in the market under the name of Dita.

10. Red Cedar (species of Sterculiaceæ) is a large and straight-growing tree, which reaches a girth of 10 feet. The tree has very characteristic root flanges, which can be seen in illustration No. 10. The timber has a mahogany-like grain, though of a somewhat more open texture. It is one of the most prevalent trees in the peninsular forest.

11. Kontah, or Mahogany (Afzelia Africana), is a large tree with oval crown and bole length of 30 feet. Only a few specimens were met with in the forest, though the tree often grows up in old clearings. The timber is of a reddish-brown colour, somewhat hard and very durable. It takes the place of an oak timber economically, although it is not really of that type. The grain of the timber has much longer and more open pores than oak, though it could probably be sold as an oak or teak substitute in the European market.

12. Rock Elm, also known as African Oak or Teak, is a common tree attaining large dimensions. Being a very durable wood of moderate hardness, it largely takes the place of European oak in the economy of the country, which, with its yellowish light-brown wood, rapidly becoming a nice old-oak brown colour, makes it a very similar timber, although, as the first name, Rock Elm, indicates, the tree is botanically a member of the Elm family. White ants occasionally attack its sapwood, but make no progress in the heartwood. The wood is not attacked by fungi to any extent. Wherever the rainfall is sufficient, seedlings of this tree come up in the old farms, and when cut down it sprouts again from the stump.

13. East Indian Walnut (Albizzia Lebbek) is a medium-sized tree which grows very quickly. The heartwood, which matures comparatively early, is a light-brown colour, similar to walnut. The[30] timber has an open, pretty grain. It is one of the trees which comes up in old farms, provided rainfall is moderate.

14. Satinwood (Zanthoxylum macrophyllum) is a medium-sized tree with a clear bole of 30 feet, combined with a narrow crown and small branches. It is a very common tree in the peninsular forest, and it is also found growing up in the old farms, where the rainfall is adequate (60 inches). The wood is the typical light-yellow colour. The grain of the timber is very fine and hard, which makes it less liable to shrink than other more open-grained woods. The heartwood forms early, though where trees grow up very quickly, roughly only half of the diameter width of a tree is made of heartwood. That is to say, in a tree a foot in diameter, approximately 6 inches will be heartwood. In the evergreen forest there is another species of Zanthoxylum which attains a rather larger size than the first named. It is, however, not quite so prevalent as the other species. In common with other species of Zanthoxylum, it bears all round the stem extremely large woody spines. In this species the spiny protuberances are exactly like small round cones of wood, with a diameter 2 inches at the base. Yet a third species of Zanthoxylum Senegalense yields a similar satinwood, almost as close grained, which, however, is found growing as a small tree at the edge of the deciduous forest before the dry-zone belt is reached. This tree is characterised by its much smaller leaf, with pinnæ broader in proportion to their length than the former species. In a similar manner the woody protrusions on the stem do not project more than three-quarters of an inch from it, compared to those of the second-named species, which attain a length of 3 inches. The timber of this dry-zone Satinwood is just as valuable as the former species. It is fairly prevalent in the more open forest where it is found. It withstands the annual grass fires to some extent, and seedlings appear in the neighbourhood of mature trees.

15. Violetwood is a medium-sized tree with a smooth bark not unlike beech, and a bole of up to 20 feet in length and 12 feet in girth. It is, however, a little crooked in growth, but this is not an undesirable feature, because the texture of the grain often thus becomes figured. Specimens which were collected showed this growth, and a few species had a very pretty figured grain. It is quite a common tree in the peninsular forest. The fruit of this tree is a pod about a foot long and an inch wide, containing on the average eight oblong flattish beans. The wood is of a greenish-brown colour, and is very hard, heavy and durable, judging by the timber of fallen trees. The timber when planed has a scent of violets, hence the English name which I have given to it. The tree has not been cut for use as an export timber, though it is well worth a trial. It is not used locally, so that all available supplies of timber could be used for export.

16. Pterocarpus erinaceus (African Rosewood) is a small tree of[31] the savannah forest, which is found in the Karina district and other parts of the country. It is one of the commonest trees, and occurs in small groups scattered throughout these forests. The timber is a reddish-brown colour and of a similar texture to the ordinary Camwood or Padauk, of which genus it is a member. The wood, however, of this species is much harder than that of the others, and the coloration is often partially streaked, both features being due probably to the much slower growth owing to the annual grass fires. From the neighbouring territory of Senegal the timber has been exported to France as African Rosewood, where it finds a good market; but it is doubtful if it could compete with the Bahia Rosewood in the English market, owing to its less brilliant colour; the timber is, however, worth a trial.

17. Baphia nitida (Camwood) is a small-sized tree, which is commonly found at the edge of villages and in old farms. It is a somewhat slow-growing tree, in which the heartwood forms none too early and in a somewhat irregular manner, occasionally small patches forming comparatively near the bark. The wood is hard, and the heartwood of a deep claret-red colour. The timber is close grained and of fine texture, which planes very smooth after being cut and dried. In recent years much smaller quantities of Camwood have been sent away (see Appendix I) than between the years 1827 and 1835 (see Appendix II), when between 5 and 802 tons were exported. In this connection, too, there can be no doubt that Camwood is obtained from the tree known botanically as Baphia nitida, because this tree is found in Sierra Leone, whereas Barwood, or the so-called Camwood of Nigeria, the produce of Pterocarpus tinctorius or Osun, which has not yet been reported from the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, could not have been absolutely killed out between the years 1835 and 1900.

III. Trees Cut for Local Use.

1. Morinda citrifolia? (the Brimstone) is the most common tree, from which the largest amount of timber which is used locally is obtained. Growing, as it does, with a girth up to 20 feet and a bole length of 50 feet, the local sawyers can usually make a very large number of 12-feet planks 1 inch thick out of each tree. The chief use of this timber is for weather-boards, which are sold at 10s. per 100 feet. All the native houses in Freetown are faced with weather-boards of this kind of timber. After being cut down, shoots sprout out from the stump, forming in a few years small trees of useful size, especially in old farms. The name of this tree, Brimstone, denotes the wonderful sulphur-like colour of the wood. The durability of this timber for outside work and its termite-resisting qualities have given it a premier position amongst local timbers. The[32] Brimstone has a fruit not unlike coffee, and bears seeds plentifully; it should therefore not be difficult to raise seedlings for making plantations. The trees grown from stool-shoots do not appear to attain nearly such a large size as those grown from seedlings in the forest.

2. Chlorophora excelsa (Rock Elm, African Oak) is a common tree which is cut for local use. The heartwood, which rapidly darkens from a light-yellow brown colour to a dark old-oak brown colour on exposure to air, is very durable for inside or outside work. Though white ants attacks and destroy the sapwood, they make little or no progress in properly seasoned heartwood. Locally it realises 10s. per 100 feet. It is plentiful, and has a distinct tendency to spread into old farms, where the seedlings have more light to develop than in the forest.

3. Iyawey (Red Cedar, or Isganwe) is also a common tree which is cut for local use. It is a large and straight-growing tree, and attains a girth of about 10 feet. Owing to the wood being comparatively soft, easy to saw and of a nice red colour, it fetches 12s. per 100 feet, which is more than is obtained for several other local timbers.

4. Oldfieldia Africana (Black Oak, Beechwood) is cut for local use, for sale as planks at 2¼d. per foot, and uprights and beams at 3s. per cubic foot. One of the chief uses of this timber is for the keelsons of the locally made sea-going boats. Owing to the difficulty of the local sawyers in handling heavy logs on the raised wooden pit-saw framework on which the logs are sawn, only comparatively small trees are felled, and consequently there is more waste, and undersized trees are prematurely sacrificed owing to the poor methods of the local sawyers. Less timber, especially heartwood, is thus obtained.

5. Parinarium sp. (White Oak) is a moderately common tree. It attains a good height and a girth of 12 feet. It has large root flanges reaching about 10 feet up the bole. Although a somewhat hard wood, it is used locally either as planks and posts or as beams and logs. It is said to be durable, and is worth 2s. per cubic foot when sawn.

6. Afzelia Africana (Mahogany, Kontah) is a medium-sized tree which is not very prevalent in the forest, but is much more so outside in the open forest country. The timber, which is hard, has an open grain with a good yellow-brown colour, not unlike Iroko. It is very durable, and used as planks and logs. In the plank it is sold at 6d. per superficial foot, and in the log at 3s. 6d. per cubic foot. This is considered one of the best local woods, partly owing to its grain being somewhat similar to mahogany. Seedlings appear in old farms where there are but few grasshoppers. Otherwise trees grown in a nursery are attacked by these insects, as well as by rodents of different kinds.

7. Daniellia Ogea (Blue Bessie) is sold as planks at 3d. per superficial[33] foot. It is closely related to Paradaniella Thurifera; the former tree is more prevalent in the green forest, and the latter in the open deciduous forests, which attains a girth of 10 feet and a bole length of 30 feet, while the first-named species reaches a girth of over 20 feet and a bole length of over 100 feet. It is sold locally chiefly for house-building.

8. Griffonia palescens Koronko is felled for sale as planks at 2½d. per superficial foot.

9. Coula edulis? (Almond Wood) is a medium-sized tree which is cut into planks 1 to 2 inches thick and up to 12 feet long, and sold at 2½d. per superficial foot.

10. Rhizophora racemosa (Mangrove) grows in pure “stands” in the swamps near the sea coast, chiefly in the estuaries of the rivers. It attains a girth of 4 feet and a height of 80 feet. It is sold as poles 9 to 12 feet in diameter at the rate of 2½d. per cubic foot. Very large areas of mangrove forest occur, so that ample supplies of this kind of timber are assured. Locally it is often used for house-building, and is preferred to many other timbers.

11. Ochrocarpus Africanus (Mammy Apple) is a large tree attaining a girth of 10 feet and a bole length of 30 feet. It is evidently not so prevalent as it used to be, owing to the fact that the best trees have been felled. Seedlings, however, appear very readily from the large fruit when it falls in suitable germinating places in the forest. It is much prized locally on account of its pretty grain and red mahogany-like colour. It is sold as planks, joists or posts at 3d. or 3½d. per superficial foot.

12. Anisophyllea laurina (Monkey Apple) is a very lofty tree, attaining a girth of 12 feet and a bole length of 40 feet. Although moderately prevalent in the forests, it is very plentiful outside in the deciduous forests. It shoots up very strongly from the stump after an old tree has been cut down. Wood obtained from these stool-shoots is, however, not so good or of such large size as that obtained from seedling trees. The timber is a light-brown colour, but a very pretty grain, full of medullary rays, giving it a sheen not unlike oak. Locally it is sold as joists and posts at the price of 3d. to 6d. per superficial foot.

13. Lophira procera (Red Oak, Kokank, also known as Ironpost) is sold as planks, posts and beams at 3½d. to 6d. per superficial foot. It is chiefly used for house-building. A full description of this tree is given under the heading of the export timbers, so that nothing more need be added here.

14. Parinarium excelsum (Rough-skinned Plum) is a very common tree, which attains a girth of 12 feet and a bole length of 30 feet. It yields a hard timber with open grain. It is sold locally as planks or logs at 6d. per cubic foot for building timber. The fruit, which,[34] as the name indicates, is like a green plum, is covered with white lenticels, making the surface very rough. The flesh is of a yellowish colour and soft, with a pasty nature. It has a sweet, pleasant taste. The wood, when freshly cut, has a sweet, beeswax-like scent, similar to that of the fruit.

15. Whismore, which is sold as planks at 2½d. per superficial foot, is another very useful timber, not unlike cedar in texture. The tree comes up very readily in old farms, and has very large tripinnate leaves. Apparently it grows very fast, though this does not appear to hinder the early formation of heartwood, which is of a very light brown colour, though the sapwood is quite white. It attains a girth of about 9 feet and a bole length of 50 feet. The bark forms very characteristic fissures, dividing it into more or less diamond-shaped pieces, rather reminiscent of the European Elm. Although the tree does not occur in actual groups, more than one will usually be found in the same locality.

16. Uapaca Heudelotti (Sugar Plum, Red Cedar) is a large tree with rather a spread of crown and numerous aerial roots. It attains a girth of 9 feet and a bole length of 20 feet. The timber has a close and fine grain, and is of a reddish colour. Locally it is cut and used for the ribs of sea-going boats. It is apparently quite durable for this purpose. It is very prevalent, and usually grows near waterways.

17. Pycnanthus Kombo (White Cedar) is a very large tree which attains a girth of 12 feet and a bole length of 80 feet. It is very prevalent, and can be recognised by the flat crown and long straight branches coming out at right angles to the stem. When cut it exudes a reddish-coloured mass of semi-liquid nature. The bark reminds one of the Mahoganies, though on the whole it is more fissured. The timber is soft and of a pinkish colour, though it gives more the impression that it is white and tinged with red. It has a very open grain with particularly long pores, reminding one of cedar (Cedrela). It is cut locally for sale as planks.

18. Pterocarpus Erinaceus (African Rosewood) is mentioned amongst the number of possible export timber-bearing trees. It is also used locally in the making of a musical instrument called Balangi, after the timber has lain some months in the ground. In the drier portions of the country it is a useful tree for house-building. It seeds readily, and is usually found in large quantities.

19. Baphia nitida (Camwood) is also one of the export produce bearing trees, but which has been used as a colouring matter for putting on the body from time immemorial. The local people, however, prefer to use cakes of the ground-up produce of the Barwood (Pterocarpus Tinctorius) from Southern Nigeria, which commands a higher price. That this product of Baphia nitida is the true Camwood is practically proved by the fact that this tree was first identified[35] from Sierra Leone, whence it is all exported, and also by the fact that Barwood, or the Southern Nigeria Camwood, is not found in Sierra Leone.

Although the above completes the description of the most important local timber trees, there are many others which might be used with satisfaction. One of these trees, known as Yabonji by the Mendis, has a grain, colour and softness similar to white pine, and is sold locally as yellow pine. Erythrophlœum Guineense (Sassybark) yields a hard timber suitable for bridge-building, as it is very durable and grows to a large size, though not always with a very long bole. Mountain Mahogany, a species of Lonchocarpus, has a grain similar to pine, with resin-like canals in the wood. It grows to a large size, with a straight bole 50 feet in length and a girth of 10 feet. Combwood (Conapharingia pachysiphon) is a small tree, which yields a yellow wood similar in texture and grain to boxwood, though a little softer. Locally it is used for making native combs. There is also a so-called Leopardwood, termed Koligi by the Mendis, which has a curious striped grain a little reminiscent of a leopard’s skin; hence the name. The local inhabitants have various chewsticks, which are obtained from guttiferous trees or Vernonia species. Carapa Gayensis is found and used locally both as a timber and also the seeds for making an oil for the skin. In connection with all this local felling it should be noticed that there is scope for sawn timber of all kinds, more especially when it is taken in conjunction with the fact that over 2,000,000 feet board measure of planks, etc., are imported every year. A small mill placed near Bureh Town would probably be able to supply all wants as far as Freetown and the immediate neighbourhood were concerned, and water power might be available from the Gumah River, which flows down very rapidly to the sea. A mill, on the whole, is more economical in conversion than the local sawyer, as all slabs are left to rot in the forest, but these a mill would consume in power-making, or they would be resawn into smaller boards or shingles. At present there is no sawmill in the whole country, so that there is an open field for this venture, with a forest adjacent to the market and suitable conditions of labour.

IV. Minor Forest Produce.

No account of the Sierra Leone forest would be complete without a description of the two chief vegetable products of the forest, namely Palm Oil and Kernels and Gum Copal.

Turning first of all to Gum Copal, known botanically as Copaifera Salikounda, which is a true copal gum, not to be confused with the gum from Daniellia Ogea and other allied species, illustrations Nos. 8 and 9 show this tree standing in the open, and also the shape of the[36] trunk at nearer inspection. It will be seen that it is rather a tall tree, with open thin crown and straight upward-spreading branches. The bole usually does not exceed 30 feet in length, and then forks or divides into three main stems. The curious marks on the stem, making the tree look as if it were attacked with some form of canker, are those made by tapping the trees for the gum. At the beginning of the dry season small squares of bark, about an inch across, are removed from the tree, beginning at the ground, upwards to 20 and 30 feet. At the corners of each little square gum gradually exudes during the dry season in the form of an ever-increasing sized globular tear, which hardens on exposure to the air. By the end of the dry season, as in February or March, it has attained a size of half an inch or so, and is then quite hard and white and nearly transparent. Only a few little pieces of bark adhere to its surface, and these are easily removed. Then these tears are collected in a bag, sorted, and then sold to the European firms in Sierra Leone and elsewhere. The average tree yields 1 lb. of gum copal per year.

In the peninsular forest a patch of Gum Copal trees is found near Bureh Town. In the Protectorate, irregular belts occur, such as that on the Kassewe Hills and north of Moyamba. On the banks of the Rokell River, too, it occurs in single specimens dotted along the bank. The smooth grey bark of the stem is not unlike Beech, except for the fact that it is pitted by the tapping squares, which occlude only very gradually.

The leaves are in pairs, but have such a straight inner edge that they appear like one leaf which has been cut in half down the middle. The main vein of the leaf is at one side of it. In this manner the leaf is unmistakable, though a Cynometra leaf is somewhat similar, and also a Bauhinia; but in the former the vein is more in the centre and the leaves are quite separate and not close together, and in the latter they are joined at the base. The tree appears to be easily killed by overtapping. Before the formation of the Forest Department, whole forests had been destroyed in this way, one of which I saw north of Moyamba during an inspection of the Gum Copal belt.

The timber of this tree is a red-brown colour, of hard texture, with a pretty grain. It is, of course, of the type of purple-heart. It is very durable and termite-proof, though a borer attacks it slightly. The wood of trees killed by overtapping proves to be quite sound and useful for any purpose where a hard timber is required.

The tree can be grown from the flat, round, paper-like seeds, which are bought at £1 a bushel in Sierra Leone. The tree usually bears well, and the seed is collected off the ground. Young self-sown seedlings are found, which shows that the seeds germinate readily too. It does not stand transplanting very well, but with care soon[37] recovers. It grows rapidly, and reaches a tapable size in ten years, approximately. It does not seem very exacting with regard to soil. In the peninsula it grows on rocky soil, and in Moyamba on an alluvial soil.

Recently the exports have decreased, as the following figures show, chiefly owing to the destruction of the trees by overtapping. However, when the forests have recovered, the younger trees have matured, and the trees since planted are in bearing, and an increase may be expected. It is the most valuable, Gum Copal usually being worth 8d. to 1s. 6d. a pound, but if quite clean and white it fetches as much as 2s. 6d. a pound. Its chief use is for varnish-making, though the best grades are used for pharmaceutical preparations. It is far easier to tap than rubber, and the cost of preparation is therefore very low, so that it should prove worth cultivating on a large scale. The market for Gum Copal is a comparatively large one, and other sources of supply, such as those of Kauri Gum from New Zealand, are decreasing, or not entirely meeting the demand. It is only a question of time before the whole supply will have to be obtained from cultivated trees.

It stands a certain amount of shade during the first four years, but from the fifth year onwards it is distinctly a light-loving species. On the whole it is almost a gregarious tree, as usually groups of trees are found up to fifty or more, and in a whole forest the prevalent tree will be Gum Copal; for instance, in the Gum Copal belt near Susuwuru. A planting distance of 6 feet will probably prove advantageous, as the tree has a distinct tendency to branch low down on the stem if not forced to grow up straight by the presence of other trees. Then in the tenth year a judicious thinning out of the weakest trees by tapping to death would give additional space to the others and allow for greater girth increment for the other clean-stemmed trees. An early financial yield would also thus be obtained.

In the economy of the country, more important even than the Gum Copal is the Oil Palm (Elæis Guineensis), which is found in the Forest, scattered in groups and belts amongst farms inland, as at Blama, and near the sea coast, as at Sherbro, and also as isolated individual trees in the drier parts of the Protectorate. Towards the northernmost part of the country it is not seen at all, though climatically there is nothing to stop it growing if planted in suitable localities. It tends to spread with increasing cultivation of the ground, so long as the rainfall is sufficient and the soil moist enough for it. In the forest itself it is very sparsely distributed. Owing to the large population and the comparatively small area on which the Oil Palm is really plentiful, more palm oil is eaten than exported. This is most clearly seen in the quantity of exports of both products, which show a much larger proportion of kernels than oil.

[38]The fruit usually ripens in January, February, March, or sometimes earlier, and is left for six months. Usually the trees have to some extent been cleared by the natives, then on a certain day the bunches of fruit may be cut. This takes place after the natives have cut the bush down for making the chief’s farm. It also ensures, incidentally, that most of the fruit is quite ripe, though this is not the reason why the natives may not begin cutting off the bunches when they like. The bunches of fruit are left in the forest at convenient places at the edge of the path, covered with palm leaves. After a week or so these are taken to the village, and all the drupes cut off with a machete. These are next put in large earthenware pots with a little water, which are then placed over a good fire. In about an hour the fruit is thoroughly steamed. The fruit is then piled into a trough of beaten clay with a palm-nut bottom, or even stones. Water is poured in, and the fruit is pounded with the feet and also with a small pestle. The oil gradually rises in yellow fatty masses on the surface of the water, and is collected with the hand and put into a clean pot. As soon as a pot is filled, it is placed over a good fire to boil. When it has been boiled thoroughly it is strained, the strained oil being that usually eaten or sold to firms for export. The residue of dirt and pieces of fibre is used as an illuminant in the native lamps. The nuts are placed in the sun to dry for two or three months, after which they are cracked with a stone or a piece of iron and the kernels collected in boxes or bags for sale. The fibre in the washing trough is thoroughly squeezed by hand and all oil extracted. The water is let out of the trough gradually, and all oil collected from the sides of it. It is also washed down with water to collect the more adhesive particles. Even so, there is a large percentage of waste. An oil is also made from the kernels by heating them in an iron vessel over a fire. This oil is used for the skin or for wounds.

In the ordinary way oil palms are not planted, though in moving to a new area where farms have not been made before the natives take oil-palm fruit with them, which get scattered as nuts; these germinate and form the nucleus of a group of oil palms in that locality. Considering the large population and its increasing need for the oil, the planting of oil palms appears to be remunerative.

Palm Wine-tree (Raphia vinifera) is used very largely where it is found in the extensive forests near the rivers and sea coast in swampy places. Piassava fibre is obtained from this source, but so far has not been used in Sierra Leone for this purpose, whereas in the neighbouring country some of the best piassava is obtained. The people are, however, otherwise occupied, so that until there is a greater population it is unlikely that this industry will be taken up. The approximate area of wine palms is 3,000 square miles in various parts of the whole country. Some of the best areas are found on the banks[39] of the Mano, Morro, Maho and Rokell Rivers. The long fronds of the leaves yield the steering and pushing poles for canoes, also most useful rafters and scantlings for houses. The leaves themselves are made into mats for covering the houses. They are said to last seven years when properly put on. The fruit of the tree is used for stupefying fish, which can then be very easily speared by the natives. The tree is usually set on fire to draw the palm wine, though this more often happens subsequently to the taking of the wine. A tree does not last more than three years with severe tapping, such as it is subject to by the natives.

Borassus flabellifer (Fan Palm, Bottle Palm) is found in the northern, drier part of the Protectorate, but so far is not used to any extent for house-building, for which the timber is most suitable, being very durable, of good length, and can be split. The nuts of the large coconut-like fruit are useful as a substitute for vegetable ivory, though thus far no use has been made of them. The approximate area of distribution of this species of tree is about 4,000 square miles. Quite a trade is done in various kinds of bark, altogether from about fifteen different species of trees, of which most are collected in the Peninsular Forest. Amongst them is found the Sasswood, or that of Erythrophlœum Guineense, the notorious native poison, though it is not at all certain that nowadays in Sierra Leone it is used for this purpose.

V. The Forest Department of Sierra Leone.

In the course of 1911 a Forest Department was formed by the appointment of a Conservator of Forests; this has been gradually enlarged until there are now three Assistant Conservators of Forests as well. The chief work of the Department so far has been the drafting and passing of a Forestry Ordinance in 1912 and the demarcation of two Forest Reserves. The Peninsular Forest, with its new boundaries, comprises 75 square miles, and the Kassewe Hill. Other areas have been set aside, notably the Kagnari Hills and Kambui Hills as Forest Reserves, and Nimmini and Loma Forests examined previous to demarcation with a view to their reservation. The Gum Forests were closed to tappers with the consent of the chief, so that the trees could recover from previous overtapping. In addition to this work, some rubber planting has been done in the Gumah, and one Assistant spends all his time on this work, nurseries having been formed in different places—Mano, Bo, and Falaba. A large number of botanical specimens of the trees and shrubs have been forwarded to Kew for identification, so that gradually the silvan vegetation is becoming known. No planting of oil palms (Elæis Guineensis) has been undertaken yet, despite the large export of this product. Rubber planting has not[40] been forgotten either. So far very little revenue has been received for timber-felling fees, which means really that in the past the forests have been destroyed, and now only small quantities can be cut. It does indeed make one pause and think what immense forests must have existed in the days of 1827, when so many loads of timber were exported, as shown in the table on p. 64. If those forests had been preserved then, they would be yielding high returns now, and the Department would be self-supporting, instead of having money invested first in plantations before returns are obtained. However, now that the Department has been formed, a definite Forest Ordinance has been passed, under which Forest Reserves can be made, and the future of the existing forests is thus assured. Sooner or later all of them will yield a monetary return, besides benefiting the country climatically and preserving the soil.

One can really look upon Forestry as a kind of Endowment Assurance, with returns which may begin at once with existing forests, or later with afforestation begun now. The return is always sure, more especially now, with continually rising timber prices. In Sierra Leone, of course, for some years money will have to be put into Forestry work before adequate returns can be made, owing to the reckless mismanagement of the forest in the early part of the nineteenth century. For the purpose of easy reference, a list of some of the most important timber trees is appended, and with both the Mendi and Timani names, when it is possible to give these, and an English equivalent is also given where one uses a name suggestive of the use of the timber.

So far the Department has not leased any areas for the exploitation of timber for export or local use, though there are several areas available, such as the peninsular forest. Even an organization of the sawyers and boat-builders would be a useful work, and machinery for cutting the various woods would lead to greater production and a saving of timber, of which so much is now wasted. Again, the enormous demand for firewood in Freetown, most of which is waterborne, could be more advantageously met with a small sawmill or movable plant in connection with the other wood-using industries already named. The mangrove swamps would provide material ready at hand for conversion. The railway requires firewood at certain points; there again is scope for improved methods of dealing with it, yielding profit both to the contractor and to the Forest Department.

Fig. 7.—Pterocarpus esculentus in flower near Fakar Kole, at the edge of the Peninsular Forest.

Fig. 8.—Forest of true Gum Copal (Copaifera salikounda), showing nearly all the trees bare of foliage and dying, due to overtapping, near Sussuwuru, Moyamba District.

Fig. 9.—True Gum Copal (Copaifera salikounda), showing base of stem with tapping squares, near the bank of the Rokell River, north of Moyamba District.

To face p. 40.

[41]VI.—INDIGENOUS FOREST TREES

Species marked with an asterisk (*) are Lane Poole’s[1]; those marked with an obelisk (†) are the Author’s.

Pandanaceæ.

Pandanus candelabrum. Screw Pine. Bambi (Mendi).

Pandanus sp. near P. candelabrum.* Screw Pine. Pambei (Mendi).

It is a tree with wide-spreading prop roots always growing in running fresh water. The leaves are used in basket-making.

Palmæ.

Elæis Guineensis.* Oil Palm. Ankump (Timani); Tui, Tauwi, Taupwi (young trees), (Mendi).

The well-known Oil Palm. It is a most useful tree, thriving best near villages, but growing abundantly in the northern part of the forests. The nuts contain a large quantity of oil. They are used also for planting.

Borassus flabellifer.* Fan or Daleb Palm. Tunka (Timani); Hoke (Mendi).

It grows to about 70 feet in the grass country. Umbrellas are made from the leaves, also baskets. The stems are used for building-posts.

Raphia vinifera.* Wine Palm. Ankent (Timani); Duvui (Mendi).

Sometimes called the Tombo Palm. It is very gregarious, being frequently found forming almost a small forest in swampy ground.

Raphia sp. near R. Gaertneri.* Kili (Mendi).

It is a small plant of only 10 feet, growing in the swamps. It does not yield wine. Baskets and mats are made from the leaf stalks and thatch from the leaves.

Calamus sp.* Balui (Mendi).

This is a climbing palm or rattan, growing to the top of the highest trees, having a diameter of 2 inches, armed with strong hooked spines. The stem, when split, is used for tying the rafters of houses; lengths of it are used as clothes-lines. Suspension bridges are even made over the river.

Calamus sp.* Tambelei (Mendi).

This species grows as high as the preceding one, but is only ½ inch in diameter. Besides being used as cordage, it is employed as thatching.

[42]Liliaceæ.

Dracæna Mannii.* Ningei (Mendi).

This tree grows to 30 feet in height, and is called the Asparagus Tree by Europeans, because the flavour of the young leaves is like asparagus. The natives eat them chopped with their rice.

Ulmaceæ.

Trema affinis.* Gombei (Mendi).

A small tree, from 25 to 30 feet. It springs up in cleared farms; the wood is of little use except as thatching laths. The bark is peeled and eaten for coughs.

Trema Africana.* †

A medium-sized tree.

Moraceæ.

Ficus Vogelii.* Jol, Lopi (Timani); Gonwi (Mendi).

A much-branched tree, yielding a latex, which coagulated has been sold at from 6d. to 1s. a lb. in London as paste rubber.

Ficus sp.* Wild Fig or Sandpaper Tree. Indäihen (Mendi).

This species has rough leaves like sandpaper, hence its name. They are used to clean woodwork.

Ficus platyphytes. Gonwé (Mendi).

Chlorophora excelsa.* Iroko, Teak, African Oak. Tema (Timani); Sime or Semei (Mendi).

It is found particularly near old clearings, but not so frequently in the forest. It is a termite-resisting timber; called Teak, Oroko or African Oak, when exported, it is worth about 1½d. per superficial foot. At one time the latex was used as an adulterant for rubber. It polishes well and makes very handsome furniture. Canoes, pestles, rice-basins, etc., are made from it. Dr. Unwin suggests that Iroko is a corruption for rock elm.

Musanga Smithii.* Corkwood. Ofika (Timani); Govwi (Mendi).

It is a common tree, growing to about 60 feet in old farm lands, and affords a shade for forest species to get a footing. It is remarkable for its wide-spreading prop roots and large palmate leaves.

Myrianthus arboreus.* Fofoi (Mendi).

A small tree.

Myrianthus sp.* Fofoi (Mendi).

A small tree.

Myrianthus serratus.* Fofoi (Mendi).

A small tree with edible fruit.

[43]Olacaceæ.

Coula edulis.* Tokei (Mendi).

It is a large tree bearing walnut-like nuts, the kernels of which are good to eat both raw and cooked. Oil is obtained from the kernels, which are valued at £7 a ton.

Olax.*

A small tree.

Loranthaceæ.

Loranthus langwensis.* Mistletoe. Gongui (Mendi).

This is the common mistletoe, which may be seen growing on a great number of trees. Specially common on Guava and Kola Trees.

Menispermaceæ.

Triclisia macrophylla. Ndawi (Mendi).

A climbing shrub.

Anonaceæ.

Xylopia Æthiopica.* The Spice Tree. Umberikum (Timani); Kewe or Hewe (Mendi).

Its fruit is much in demand as medicine.

Xylopia sp. Dinklagei.* Mountain Spice. Kapus (Timani); Hui, Hewe (Mendi).

Monodora Myristica.* Calabash Nutmeg or False Nutmeg. Gboite (Mendi).

It is a medium-sized tree, with rose-pink, sweet-smelling flowers. The fruit is the false nutmeg.

Xylopia sp. near X. Elliotii.* Yellow Wood. Belvi or Kpaini (Mendi).

This tree grows to a medium height, with thin but very straight stem up to 18 inches in diameter. Its wood has been exported to Europe, where it has taken the place of American whitewood.

Xylopia parviflora.*

A tall tree of 20 feet, growing on the bank of the Moa River.

Cleistopholis sp. near C. patens.* Moigbwamy (Mendi).

This tree grows to a height of 80 feet. Strips of the bark are used by the natives for making brow-bands and shoulder-straps when carrying palm hampers.

Hexalobus grandiflorus.* Njahewe (Mendi).

It is a large, wide-crowned tree, with conspicuous white flowers.

[44]Pachypodanthium Staudtii.*

A large-boled forest tree, with grey, rough bark, of which the timber is very hard to saw.

Stenanthera hamata.*

A small tree.

Uvaria Afzelii.*

A tree of 15 feet in height, with very heavy-scented flowers.

Uvaria sp.*

A tall, straight tree, with blackish-green longitudinally ribbed bark.

Uvaria macrocarpa.* Finger Root.

This tree is found 15 feet in height. The root is used medicinally by the Creoles, and by them called Finger Root.

Myristicaceæ.

Pycnanthus Kombo.* White Cedar. Kuwul (Timani); Boye (Mendi).

It is a very tall tree, attaining a girth of 12 feet, which is cut locally, but not for export, owing to its soft wood and open grain.

Moringaceæ.

Moringa pterygosperma.* Horse-radish Tree; or Oil of Ben Tree.

The oil in the seeds is 38 per cent., and they are valued at £9 a ton in London. The oil is suitable for lubricating clocks and watches. The wood is not used.

Rosaceæ.

Parinarium macrophyllum.* Gingerbread Plum. Ndawei (Mendi).

It is a small tree bearing a fruit the size of a goose’s egg. The fruit is the edible ginger-plum.

Parinarium excelsum.* Rough-skinned Plum. Abbis (Timani); Ndanwi Badgi (Mendi).

This tree attains a large size and seeds very readily. It yields a useful hardwood; is felled locally and for building purposes. The grain of the wood is too open to be of much use for export. It is of a reddish-brown colour. The pulp around the seed is eaten.

Leguminosæ.

Paradaniella thurifera.* Ilorin Balsam Tree. Bessi (Timani); Bessi Kpessei or Gbassei (Mendi).

A quick-growing, soft-wooded tree, pretty evenly distributed through the forest. It attains a girth of 9 feet and a bole length of 30 feet. It is cut locally for house-building and other[45] purposes. A fragrant resin is exuded and much used as a scent by the Creoles and natives.

Erythrophlœum Guineense. Sasswood. Kukorn (Timani); Gogwi (Mendi).

A large but not very straight-growing tree, which attains a girth of 9 feet. It has been exported, but the price obtained for it is not available. The wood is hard, but works up well, and has been used by the Public Works Department of Southern Nigeria.

Erythrophlœum sp. near E. micranthum.* † Sasswood or Redwater Tree.

The bark contains a virulent poison, which is used as an ordeal. It is a large forest tree, having a green bole. The wood is used to make canoes.

Erythrina Senegalensis.*

A tree 20 feet high, with handsome red flowers. The branches are armed with prickles. The wood is used for fencing.

Erythrina sp.* Malei (Mendi).

This is a large tree, 80 feet in height, with wide-spreading branches. The stem is pale grey and covered with strong prickles. The flowers are pink.

Piptadenia Africana.* K’Kuperb (Timani); Mbeli or Mbelignli (Mendi).

This tree is very plentiful, and attains a large size. The wood is of a brown colour, hard and durable. Strong canoes are made from it.

Cynometra Vogelii.*

A small tree.

Xylia Evansii.* † Bunga (Timani); Tegai (Mendi).

A medium tree.

Griffonia palescens. Koronko (Timani); Koronko (Mendi).

Pentaclethra macrophylla.* Oil Bean Tree. Kekung (Timani); Fai, Fae (Mendi).

The wood is of a brown colour, hard and durable. The natives use the ashes of the burnt pods for making soap. The wood is sold for 1s. 1d. per cubic foot in the English market.

Parkia Africana. Locust Bean. Ebbe (Timani); Gumwi (Mendi).

Parkia filicoidea. Forest Locust. Gimwi (Mendi).

Parkia biglobosa.* Locust Bean.

A wide crowned tree, 50 feet in height, bearing conspicuous red flowers and long pods. The pulp around the seed is edible, but the seed itself is considered a great delicacy ground and mixed in soup.

Parkia sp. Gumni (Mendi).

The tree is much like the P. biglobosa, but is found growing[46] wild in the forests. It differs in having well-developed buttress roots. The seed is not eaten.

Lonchocarpus. Mountain Mahogany. Ali (Timani); Jumbowill (Mendi), probably Peltophorum sp.

A very tall and straight tree, with a bole of 50 feet and a girth of 10 feet. It is found everywhere, especially on the edges of old clearings and in old farms. It has been felled for export, but no data are available as to its worth. The wood resembles pine, being soft and full of resin-like canals.

Lonchocarpus cyanescens.* Big-leaved Indigo. Jalei, Walwei (Mendi).

A valuable dye is obtained from the leaves, which takes the place of indigo and is sold at from 4s. to 4s. 6d. a pound in England.

Lonchocarpus sericeus.*

A branched and gnarled tree growing on the sea shore, its roots often being washed by the tide. The timber is close-grained, hard and durable.

Cassia Sieberiana.* Bongbo or Bangbwei (Mendi).

A small tree bearing handsome yellow flowers. A decoction is made from the root to ease elephantiasis, also stomach troubles.

Copaifera Guibourtiana.* Sierra Leone Gum Copal. Akak (Timani); Kobwi (Mendi).

This tree was found growing on the ridges and low-lying land near York and Bureh Town, also in Ronietta, Karene District, and Kassewe Hills. It is noted for its gum. The dead wood works up very well, having a fine grain and red colour, and should be of value for export. Locally it has only been used for bridge-building. The average price paid by local traders for the gum appears to be 1s. a pound.

Copaifera salikounda.* Buini (Mendi).

A large tree.

Pterocarpus esculentus. Atont (Timani); Batwi (Mendi).

Pterocarpus erinaceus.* Rosewood. Katai (Timani); Bundwi Batwi (Mendi).

This is a small but valuable tree, confined principally to the drier parts of the country, particularly in the Karina forests. The wood finds a good market in France. Locally it is used to make a musical instrument called “Balangi.” The seeds are intoxicating when eaten raw.

Macrolobium sp. Jamostima (Mendi).

Macrolobium Palisotii. K’Pal (Timani); Bumbi (Mendi).

Macrolobium sp.?* Limba? African Violet Wood. Tunfall (Timani); Pfandi or Mbombi (Mendi).

[47]It yields a wood with a pleasant scent, which grows to a stem length of 20 feet and girth of 12 feet. The wood would probably be figured, owing to its peculiar growth, ebony-like, hard, heavy and of a greenish-brown colour. It bears a pod about a foot long and an inch wide. The tree grows in great quantities, but it is not used locally, owing to its hardness. It should be tried in European markets.

Macrolobium elongatum.*

It is a small shrubby tree.

Macrolobium sp. near M. Heudelotii.* †

A medium-sized tree found chiefly near water. The pod is larger than the other Macrolobiums.

Macrolobium Limba.* Mbombi (Mendi).

This tree reaches a height of 40 feet. Its roasted leaves, when ground and mixed with water and ashes, are used for ulcers.

Dialium Guineense.* Black Tumbler or Velvet Tamarind. Mabump (Temni), (Timani); Mamboi (Mendi).

A medium-sized tree bearing edible, velvety seed-vessels.

Dialium Senegalense. Black Tumbler. Baut, I (Timani); Burogono Mambui (Mendi).

Afzelia bracteata.* Konta. Konta (Timani); Bendiguri or Kpendeideli (Mendi).

Afzelia Africana.*

These two trees are very much alike as far as timber is concerned. The wood is much used locally, and it may be of value for export, as the texture is similar to mahogany. The A. Africana yields a particularly good mahogany substitute under the name of Kontah or Counter wood.

Afzelia sp.*

A large-crowned tree.

Berlinia acuminata.* Kpendei (Mendi).

This tree grows to a height of 80 feet, having a very conspicuous flower. It is much used in cabinet-making.

B. Heudelotiana.* Helei (Mendi).

A large tree, 50 feet in height.

B. sp. near B. stipulaceæ.* Tzabembi (Mendi).

A large tree, the seeds of which are made into counters by the Mendis to play Warry.

Brachystegia sp.* Bodgei (Mendi).

It reaches the height of 150 feet, and is one of the largest forest trees, with wide buttress roots.

Cryptosepalum tetraphyllum.* Hellebolei (Mendi).

A large tree.

[48]Cylicodiscus gabunensis.* African Greenheart. Mbeli-deli (Mendi).

It is very similar to Piptadenia Africana in appearance, and also yields a strong, hard wood.

Dalbergia sp.* Dalbergia Rosewood. Balakenta (Timani); Firbandu Ndambabuli (Mendi).

A small tree.

Baphia polygalaceæ.* Ndambabuli (Mendi).

A climber, 10 feet in height. The stem used for killing fish.

Baphia nitida.* Camwood Tree. Mat, Kam (Timani); Bendwi or Bunduei (Mendi).

A small tree from which dyewood, a fast red dye, is obtained. The wood is hard and heavy, and is used for rice-mortar pestles and walking-sticks.

Albizzia Brownii.* Albizzia. Bakbwi or Bpakpei (Mendi).

This is a medium-sized tree yielding a reddish wood of moderately fine grain, somewhat resembling mahogany. The heartwood is very pretty. It should be saleable in Liverpool market.

Albizzia fastigiata.* Folei-kpakpei, Bakbaboi (Mendi).

This species rarely attains a diameter at the base of more than 18 inches. It nearly always has a rotten heart.

Detarium Senegalense.* Mahogany, Dita. Kita (Timani); Dupwi II, Kolei (Mendi).

It is a very lofty tree, which yields a wood sold as mahogany in the Liverpool market. The grain is not so close as is usual in mahogany, but the colour is good. The fruit is edible and eaten locally. Dita is the name given to it. It is not very common.

Detarium sp.*

A large tree of 60 or 70 feet in height, probably a new species.

Millettia cf. drastica.*

A small tree.

Millettia Lane-Poolei.* Togbeli (Mendi).

A small tree or shrub about 15 feet in height, with white, scentless flowers. There are three other varieties, with flowers ranging from white and pink to mauve.

Millettia pallens.*

A medium-sized tree with mauve flowers.

Millettia sp. near M. Sangana.*

A medium-sized tree with erect pods and mauve flowers.

Millettia rhodantha.*

A medium-sized tree with yellow, aromatic wood.

Mimosa Dinklagei.* Gumgui (Mendi).

A medium-sized tree, 50 feet in height.

[49]Newtonia insignis.*

A tree about 80 feet in height, with well developed buttress roots.

Peltophorum.* Njomboguli (Mendi).

A large tree.

Ormosia monophylla.*

Linaceæ.

Ochthocosmus Africanum.* Tuanyei (Mendi).

A small, fairly common tree.

Humiriaceæ.

Saccoglottis Gabunensis.*

This tree yields a first-class timber. The bark strips off cleanly and is sold in Calabar at 5s. a roll 30 inches long and 18 inches in diameter.

Rutaceæ.

Zanthoxylum macrophyllum.* Spiny Satinwood. Witkoran (Timani); Pfui II (Mendi).

This tree yields a very pretty yellow wood, with a somewhat open grain.

Zanthoxylum sp. Satinwood. Bek (Timani); Pfui (Mendi).

A medium-sized tree, with most peculiar conically shaped woody protrusions on the bark. It has not been cut locally.

Zanthoxylum rubescens.*

An armed tree from 12 to 15 feet high.

Burseraceæ.

Canarium Schweinfurthii. White Mahogany. Beri (Mendi).

This tree is not very common. A very large tree which has been found 150 feet high, with a bole of 70 feet and a girth of 10 feet. It could be cut locally and would make a valuable addition to local furniture woods. It is, however, hard to saw.

Meliaceæ.

Lovoa Klaineana.* † African Walnut.

It is a medium-sized tree, not very common; the value of the timber varies from 1¾d. to 3d. per foot.

Lovoa sp. near L. Klaineana. African Walnut.

A medium-sized tree.

Carapa procera.* Crabwood, Coondi, Kakunt (Timani); Kuwi Kowi (Mendi).

It is a medium-sized tree, which is evenly distributed everywhere. It yields a mahogany-like wood, which has been sold in the Liverpool market.

[50]Carapa Gayensis.

Guarea. Satin Mahogany. Kaffi (Mendi).

A fair-sized tree, having a grain similar to mahogany, but with a satiny sheen which may make it very valuable. It is not cut locally, but might be tried for export.

Guarea sp. near leptotricha.* † Kaffi (Mendi).

A tree.

Pseudocedrela. Cedar Mahogany. Bissimi (Mendi).

This tree grows to a very large size. The timber is similar to that of a tree found in Southern Nigeria, but it appears to be a different species; the sapwood is wider and the heartwood has a better colour. It is fairly common.

Pseudocedrela sp. near P. utilis.*

A large tall tree, yielding a handsome wood.

Ekebergia.*

Medium-sized tree.

Khaya.*

Dr. A. H. Unwin found a Khaya in a Gola forest which has since been ceded to Liberia. The Khayas yield timber (African Mahogany), gum, tanning-barks and medicaments.

Trichilia Heudelotii.*

Trichilia sp. near T. Prieuriana.*

A medium-sized tree.

Trichilia sp.* Jawei (Mendi).

Turræa sp.*

A small tree, from 12 to 15 feet.

Polygalaceæ.

Carpolobia alba.* Bofelei or Gibofoyoi (Mendi).

It is a small tree called Poor Man’s Candle.

Carpolobia lutea.*

A shrub or small tree.

Dichapetalaceæ.

Chailletia toxicaria.* Magbevi (Mendi).

A violent poison is made from the kernel, used by the natives to destroy dogs and vermin. They have also used it to poison well-water in hostile villages. The pulp of the fruit is harmless and edible.

Euphorbiaceæ.

Ricinodendron Heudelotii. Mahogany. Kino (Timani); Boi (Mendi).

This tree yields a mahogany valued at 2d.-3½d. per superficial foot. It is rather an uncommon tree, but as it seeds very[51] readily and develops rapidly, more could be planted. A large number are found along the river banks.

Ricinodendron Africanus.* Gbolei (Mendi).

A tree 90 feet high with horse-chestnutlike leaf. The timber is soft, and used for making masks for Bundu devils, also rice spoons and plates. The seeds are rich in oil, but the natives do not extract it; they are, however, used by the native women in the rattle for their Bundu dance.

Uapaca Guineensis.* Sugar Plum, Red Cedar. Kulil (Timani); Kondi (Mendi).

A large spreading tree with aerial roots. It is cut locally and used for the ribs of local boats. The wood is of a reddish colour and fine grain, which might sell as mahogany. Some species yield edible fruits.

Uapaca Heudelotii.*

This is a tree growing up to 60 feet along the bank of the Moo River.

Uapaca Togoensis.*

This tree grows in the riverside forests.

Oldfieldia Africana.* Real African Oak. Tortorza (Timani); Paulai, Pawi Kpaoloe (Mendi).

This tree attains a large size, a height of 120 feet and diameter at the base of 5½ feet. The bole often reaches 60 feet without a branch, though sometimes the bole is short, owing to its growing in a laterite soil. It is more frequent in the southern than the northern forests. It has not been cut locally, though the natives recognise it as a very hard wood. It has been used for dock gates.

Cyclostemon. Toye (Mendi).

Flueggea microcarpa.* Tigwi (Mendi).

Amanoa bracteata.* Jagbouei (Mendi).

A tree which grows up to 5 feet in diameter, and straight from the ground to a height of 60 feet. It is then much branched. The timber is not used.

Anthostema Senegalense.* Mamboi (Mendi).

It is a small tree growing on the sea shore.

Antidesma laciniatum.

A tree attaining a height of 25 feet.

Bridelia ferruginea.*

It is a small tree of about 20 feet high, very much branched. All through the dry season it drips water at night.

Bridelia micrantha.* Igili (Mendi).

This species also reaches a height of 20 feet. It is used for making charcoal, and a medicine is made from meat stewed in the water in which the roots have been boiled.

[52]Hasskarlia didymostemon.*

This tree grows to a height of 50 feet, with a diameter at the base of 20 feet. It is one of the diœcious trees.

Hymenocardia acida.* Fagbajoi (Mendi).

A small tree, knotted, gnarled and branched, growing both in the open and in the forest.

Hymenocardia Heudelotii.*

A small tree.

Hymenocardia lyrata.* †

This species is found in the peninsular forests.

Macaranga Barteri.* Ndeiwei (Mendi).

It is a medium-sized armed tree, reaching about 50 feet, and 18 inches in diameter at the base. A light wood used for firewood.

Macaranga heterophylla.* Fofui (Mendi).

A medium-sized tree.

Macaranga monandra.* Ndeiwei (Mendi).

It is a medium-sized armed tree, up to 50 feet high, and 8 inches at the base, with reddish-brown pubescent branches. It is useless except as firewood.

Mæsobotrya sp.*

A small tree.

Mareya spicata.* Nguangua (Mendi).

A tree reaching 30 feet in height. The leaves have a bitter taste; a decoction of them is used as a poison.

Microdesmis puberula.* Nikli (Mendi).

A small tree, reaching about 15 feet in height. The fruit is edible.

Phyllanthus discoideus.* Tijoi (Mendi).

A common tree, 60 feet in height, with a diameter of 18 inches.

Anacardiaceæ.

Mangifera Africana.* White Oak or Greenheart. Peri (Timani); Bewe-Bauban (Mendi).

A tree growing to 40 feet in height, with root flanges extending 10 feet up the stem; it has a girth of 12 feet. The tree is cut locally. The seeds are edible.

Spondias lutea.* Common Plum or the Hog Plum of the Creoles. Luep (Timani); Bogi or Gbojei (Mendi).

A large tree, with rough, grey bark; it resists the grass fires very well. They yield timber, tanning material, medicaments and edible fruit, from which a spirituous drink is prepared.

Odina sp.*

It reaches a height of 30 feet.

[53]Sorindeia juglandifolia.* Creole Damson. Ni-Kaffei (Mendi).

A tree of 50 feet in height, having aerial roots. A broken branch or scraped root has a resinous smell.

Icacinaceæ.

Leptaulos daphnoides.* Propri (Timani); Bongani (Mendi).

A small tree.

Sapindaceæ.

Bersama Paullinioides.* Nyomdobai (Mendi).

A tree growing to a height of 35 feet. It is regarded as an evil tree, and neither man nor beast touches it. A poison is extracted from the root, with which Mendis poison their enemies.

Lecaniodiscus cupanioides.* †

A small tree.

Phialodiscus unijugatus.* Yokomi (Mendi).

A tree of 50 feet in height. This tree bears conspicuous red capsules, which contain black seeds having a yellow ovule. The leaves and twigs are macerated in pools in the rivers to kill fish.

Schmidelia Africana.* Komigbulei (Mendi).

A small tree.

Tiliaceæ.

Glyphæa Grewioides.* Swamp Rice. Beibolei (Mendi).

A decoction of the leaves is used for curing gonorrhœa.

Bombacaceæ.

Adansonia digitata.* Baobab, Cream of Tartar or Monkey Bread. Ungari (Timani); Sackwi Mbauwi (Mendi).

It is a slow-growing tree, but a valuable one, yielding fibre, paper pulp and a native medicine. Sodium chloride, potassium and acid tartrate have been found in the leaves.

Bombax Buonopozense.* Kinguei (Mendi).

A large deciduous tree, often called the Red Cotton Tree on account of its flowers. It yields a fibre called Kapok.

Eriodendron anfractuosum. Cotton Tree. Pullum (Timani); Ungwe (Mendi).

Eriodendron orientale.* Cotton Tree. Nhuei (Mendi).

The Cotton Tree of commerce. The fibre fetches from 2d. to 4d. a pound in London. It grows readily from seed. The seed is valuable, as it yields an oil, and the ash of the seed contains 28·5 per cent. of phosphoric acid and 24·6 per cent. of potash (the latter makes a valuable manure). The wood is used locally for canoes and platters.

[54]Sterculiaceæ.

Sterculia tragacantha.* African Tragacantha. Kobei (Mendi).

The ashes are used for soap. It yields a gum similar to that of Tragacanth, Astragalus gummifer.

Sterculia cordifolia. Red Oak. K’fut (Timani); Buni (Mendi).

Cola acuminata.* The Kola Tree. Tuloi (Mendi).

This tree yields the Kola nut, a most valuable export. Very little, however, is sent to Europe, but great quantities to French Senegal. It contains great stimulating properties, and enables travellers to march long distances without food. The tree grows wild in certain forests, and begins to yield at six or seven years old. The nut is little thought of by Europeans, owing to its bitter taste. The price varies from £10 to £12 a measure (160 lb.).

Cola angustifolia.* Denbehawi (Mendi).

A small tree, the leaves of which are used as a stomach medicine. The Munchis use the wood to make their short bows.

Cola leonensis.* † Booni (Mendi).

A small tree with large leaves.

Cola simiarum.* Baboon Kola. N’goloduloi (Mendi).

A large tree, 60 feet in height. A fine specimen of it grows over the wooden bridge at Kennema.

Heritiera.* Red Cedar or Harmon. Yawi (Mendi).

It yields a very handsome, easily worked wood, useful for any purpose. The fruit is edible.

Leptonychia.* Mbagboldede (Mendi).

It grows only to the size of a shrub or small tree. The leaves are used to cure thorn wounds.

Ochnaceæ.

Lophira procera.* African Oak, Red Ironwood, Ironpost. Ringa (Timani); Hendui or Endwi (Mendi).

This tree attains about the same size of the Oldfieldia; there does not seem to be any microscopical difference in the texture or grain of the wood. It is much used by builders, as it is proof against the attacks of termites. This tree also yields oily seeds and medicaments.

Lophira Alata.* Katank (Timani); Endwi (Mendi).

A small tree having seed yielding 43 per cent. oil, valued at £24 to £25 a ton.

Gomphia congesta.* Colonguli (Mendi).

A small tree undergrowth.

Ochna sp.*

A small tree.

[55]Guttiferæ.

Ochrocarpus Africanus.* African Apple or Mammy Apple Tree. Mammee, Bakum (Timani); Kaikumba (Mendi).

A large tree, attaining a girth of 10 feet and a bole of from 20 to 30 feet. It has been cut locally, and is much prized on account of its pretty grain and red colour. It is used for joinery and similar work.

Garcinia Kola.* † Kofé (Mendi).

Garcinia epunctata.* †

A small tree.

Garcinia polyantha.* Bitter Kola. Sagbei (Mendi).

This is a small tree with thick yellow latex; the fruit is edible.

Pentadesma butyraceæ.* Chewstick. Komdi (Timani); Mdayen (Mendi).

Chewstick. This is a very prevalent tree, though it does not reach very stout dimensions. The roots are used extensively for native chewsticks.

Haronga Madagascariensis.* Mbeli (Mendi).

It is a small tree which grows readily on farm lands. The juice below the bark is orange-red. The wood resembles that of Proteaceous trees and is very beautiful.

Mammea sapota.*

Locally called Mammy Supporter. It is a handsome tree and has an edible fruit.

Vismia leonensis.*

A small tree of 15 feet.

Allanblackia floribunda.*

A medium-sized tree.

Violaceæ.

Alsodeia sp.*

A small tree. Some of these yield timber.

Alsodeia sp.*

A medium-sized tree growing near the river.

Flacourtiaceæ.

Homalium molle.* Niagalei (Mendi).

It is a large tree, very tall and straight.

Homalium sp.* Kologalei (Mendi).

A large straight tree, often confused with H. molle.

Rhizophoraceæ.

Anisophyllea laurina.* Monkey Apple. Kant (Timani); Kanti (Mendi).

[56]This is a very lofty tree, with a bole of 40 feet and girth of 12 feet. It has not been tried as timber away from the locality, but should be valuable as an export, having a pretty grain, full of medullary rays. The local value is 3d. to 6d. per lineal foot. It is fairly common in the forest, but very plentiful outside, as it shoots up from the stump when cut down. Naturally, the wood from such trees is not so good as from seedlings.

Rhizophora racemosa.* Mangrove. Dingi (Mendi).

This is a small tree of the swamps which is found very useful for poles and firewood. It fetches a high price from the bakers—£1 10s. to £1 15s. a cord. The bark contains 18 per cent. of tannin.

Combretaceæ.

Anogeissus.* †

A chewstick with a black heart. It will kill out Lalong grass.

Laguncularia racemosa.*

This is a shrub which grows in the mangrove swamps. It yields a second-rate tannin bark.

Terminalia scutifera.* †

A large straight, tall-boled tree, yielding a useful timber to shipwrights.

Terminalia sp.* Bagi (Mendi).

A very large tree, even taller than T. superba, and the timber is yellower. The tree is gnarled and much branched near the sea-shore. The wood is much used for canoes. Dye and a yellow wash for sore feet are obtained from the bark.

Terminalia superba.* Kojagei (Mendi).

A very large tree of 150 feet or more. The timber is soft and white, used for indoor work, but it is much attacked by borers.

Myrtaceæ.

Eugenia calophylloides.*

A small tree.

Melastomaceæ.

Memecylon, cf. M. spathulandra.†

It is a small tree growing in the swamps near Bureh town.

Araliaceæ.

Cussonia Djalonensis.

A medium-sized to large tree growing in the savannah forests. It has a thick grey, rough bark.

[57]Sapotaceæ.

Mimusops sp. Benin Mahogany. Tuntumi (Timani); Sukai I (Mendi).

It is a kind of mahogany which is very common, and attains a girth of 12 feet, with a smaller bole than the ordinary mahogany. The wood is of a reddish colour and rather hard. This tree is found growing at a higher altitude than most timber trees, which makes the forest situated at 2,000 feet much more valuable.

Mimusops sp. Mahogany substitute. Bobbyboya Water (Timani).

This is a very large tree, with hard red wood sold as mahogany, not very plentiful.

Mimusops. Mahogany substitute. Abugie (Mendi).

Another species of hard mahogany. It is not very plentiful, but worthy of export. It is of large size and good “form figure,” somewhat the shape of a cylinder.

Mimusops Djave.* †

A large beautiful tree, yielding a valuable sound timber.

Mimusops. African Pearwood. Sukai II (Mendi).

A large tree with a good bole. It has been exported and sold in the Hamburg market at 6d. a foot. The wood is of a reddish colour, a little harder than mahogany, and of close grain. It would pay to plant out any seedlings found.

Sideroxylon longistylum. Kafe or Kaffi (Mendi).

Some species yield timber, edible seeds and medicaments.

Sideroxylon Alymerii. Teyei (Mendi).

A medium-sized tree bearing a seed rich in oil. The oil of the seed is very like that of the coconut in taste; it is used for frying food or for hair-oil.

Chrysophyllum sp. Tuinynelli (Mendi).

All the Chrysophyllum species yield timber and edible fruits.

Chrysophyllum sp. Star-apple. Terle (Mendi).

Chrysophyllum ellipticus.* Beari (Mendi).

A small species growing on the sea-shore.

Chrysophyllum. African Star-apple. Bungi (Mendi).

Chrysophyllum pruniforme.* Heleilahin (Mendi).

Elephants are fond of the bark.

Ebenaceæ.

Diospyros sp.* †

A medium-sized ebony.

Maba Mannii.

A tree.

[58]Loganiaceæ.

Anthocleista nobilis.* Pongoi-hei (Mendi).

This is a larger species than the A. parviflora; it is not armed. The root is used as a medicine. The wood is soft and useless.

Anthocleista parviflora.* Pongoi-hini (Mendi).

In English sometimes called Cabbage Palm. This species reaches scarcely over 30 feet in height; it is armed with strong, twin-set spines. The wood is soft and useless.

Apocynaceæ.

Funtumia elastica.* African Rubber Tree. Emarr (Timani); Buboi (Mendi).

This tree grows to a height of 50 feet. It is rare in Sierra Leone, but has been found in Kagnari, Nimmini and Loma Mountains. It yields a good rubber.

Funtumia Africana.* Rubber. Buboi (Mendi).

This species grows to a height of 70 feet. It yields an abundant latex of no commercial value.

Polyadoa Elliotii. Boxwood. K’Palen (Timani); Kofee or Kofei (Mendi).

It is a small tree with greenish pimply bark. The wood is very hard, like boxwood, and is used to make hair combs and hoe handles. Medicine is made from the bark.

Alstonia Congensis.* † Kauwi (Mendi).

A large, tall tree with a straight stem, found in the peninsular forests.

Landolphia Owariensis jenje.* Common Rubber Vine. Huwi Djenjei (Mendi).

The export of this rubber was at one time very profitable, but the natives overtapped the tree, and even dug up the roots to extract the rubber. The fruit of this species is edible.

Landolphia Heudelotii.*

This is a climber 40 feet in height, and one of the most valuable of the Landolphias, found in many parts; but it is the characteristic vegetation of the dry interior of Senegambia and the Upper Niger.

Landolphia leonensis.* Nali (Mendi).

A climber reaching the tops of the highest trees. The fruit is 3½ inches in diameter. The pulp around the seed is edible. The latex is used as bird-lime, but yields no rubber, and cannot even be used as an adulterant.

Callichilia subsessilis.*

It is a shrub or small tree having a handsome flower.

[59]Conopharyngia crassa.*

A small tree bearing a double fruit as large as a child’s head.

C. longiflora.*

A small tree bearing a conspicuous heavy-scented flower.

Holarrhena Africana.* Nukoi (Mendi).

A small or medium-sized tree. Wooden serving spoons for rice are made from the wood. The leaves beaten to a pulp are used for poultices.

Holarrhena ovata.* Bubbuoi (Mendi).

Used as a stirring-stick.

Pleioceras Afzelii.

A small tree.

Pleiocarpa tricarpella.

A small tree.

Rauwolfia vomitoria. Kawogei (Mendi).

A very common small tree, 20 feet high. Swizzle-sticks for mixing drinks are made from it, and the natives use the large branches for mixing indigo dye.

Voacanga Africana.*

A tree 30 feet high bearing very fragrant flowers.

Voacanga obtusa.*

A tall tree.

Voacanga Thonnersii.*

A medium-sized tree of 50 feet in height, with ornamental cream flowers. It has been seen growing in the swamp-land near the 180th milestone on the railway to Kennema.

Asclepiadaceæ.

Xysmalobium granitiolum.

A small tree in the river bed.

Borraginaceæ.

Cordia sp. Kpetellahen (Mendi).

It is a large tree growing on river banks. The bark is edible.

Verbenaceæ.

Vitex grandifolia.

Some of this species yield timber, vegetables, edible fruits and medicaments.

Vitex Cienkowskii.* Heinokohun (Mendi).

A tall tree growing at the edge of the forest.

Vitex doniana.* Lubei (Mendi).

A small tree growing in the savannah country in the Koinadugu[60] district. An ink made from the leaves is used by the Mohammedan teachers.

Vitex micrantha.* Fevei (Mendi).

A tree reaching a height of 70 feet and 2 feet 6 inches at the base. The timber is useful for many purposes. The Mohammedan teacher has his school slates made from it.

Vitex oxycuspis.* †

A small tree.

Avicennia Africana.*

A small tree growing in the mangrove swamps.

Premna hispida.* Kafei (Mendi).

A small tree. A decoction for ulcerated mouths is made from the leaves.

Bignoniaceæ.

Spathodea campanulata.* Tulip Tree.

It is a large tree yielding timber, edible seeds and medicaments. It is also used as an ornamental tree.

Newbouldia lævis.* Anyolo (Timani); Bogi Ponamagbei (Mendi).

It is a tree reaching a height of 40 feet. Its use is principally medicinal. The root and leaves are used for scrotal elephantiasis, and a decoction from the bark is applied to sore feet. It is much used for quick fences, as it grows readily from stakes.

Kigelia.*

A tree 50 feet in height.

Stereospermum leonense.*

A medium-sized tree bearing pink blossoms.

Rubiaceæ.

Morinda sp.? citrifolia.* Brimstone. Ketum (Timani); Bundwi Bundui (Mendi).

This tree grows to a height of 150 feet, and has been found with a bole of 50 feet, a girth of 16 to 20 feet, and diameter of 5 feet without any branches. The wood is of a bright yellow colour, commonly used for weather-boards. It is sold near Freetown at 10s. per 100 feet. Its English name is given because of the peculiar colour of the wood. Its durability and ant-resisting qualities have given it a high place among the local timbers. It is used for building wooden vessels, mortars, etc. It will shoot up from the stump, so a good deal of small timber is obtained from old farms. Neither its colour nor grain make it of any worth for export. The bark is made into a decoction for malaria, and the natives after marching bathe their feet in the water in which it has been boiled.

[61]Morinda confusa.* Wawae (Mendi).

It is a climber, the leaves of which are used in medicine.

Morinda quadrangularis.* Brimstone Bush. Jashuli (Mendi).

A small tree, 30 feet in height and about 1¼ feet in diameter at the base. It is only useful as firewood. The leaves are used as medicine in various diseases; supposed to be specially efficacious for malaria.

Pausynistalia Lane-Poolei.* Gibowali (Mendi).

It is a large tree having green-brown deciduous bark, on which marked depressions are left when it comes off. The bole is straight and branchless up to 40 feet. The flowers are light yellow on first coming out, afterwards turning a purple pink.

Pavetta Baconia.*

A shrub or small tree.

Psilanthus ebracteolatus.*

A small tree, 20 feet in height, having white flowers.

Bertiera glabrata.* Kafahinei (Mendi).

A small tree, 25 feet in height. The leaves are made into a medicine to soothe teething babies.

Blighia sapida.* Akee Tree. Islii of the Akus.

It is cultivated for its fruit, which is wholesome and savoury.

Canthium discolor.* Totengei (Mendi).

A shrub to small tree with strong, sharp spines.

Corynanthe paniculata.* Gibowuli (Mendi).

A tree 50 feet high.

Craterispermum laurinum.* Alum Bark. Njelei (Mendi).

A tree 25 feet in height, having a diameter of 1 foot at the base. The bark, when dried and beaten into powder, is used as a remedy for sore feet. The wood splits easily and is used in thatching.

Crossopteryx Kotschyana? or Africana.*

A small tree.

Croton penduliflorus.*

A small tree of 35 feet.

Gaertnera paniculata.*

This is only found as a small tree on the sea-shore, but said to grow big in the forest.

Gardenia sp. near G. physophylla.* Buittigirri (Mendi).

A medium-sized tree growing in swamps.

Heinsia jasminiflora.* Pegblagei (Mendi).

It is a tree of about 20 feet in height; the flowers white and much like jasmin. Scrapings of the bark are used for irritation of the skin at rice-harvest.

[62]Mitragyne. Mbuandae or M’boy (Mendi).

A large, tall tree, 100 feet high and 4½ feet in diameter at the base. It is only found in swamp-land. It yields a light, white wood much used in indoor work. The leaves are very large and are used for wrapping kolas; they are sold in Freetown at 3d. a bundle.

Morelia Senegalensis.*

This is a small tree half scandent.

Oxyanthus unilocularis.*

A small tree.

Oxyanthus speciosus. Pebulai (Mendi).*

This tree is common near Freetown. The bark is aromatic, and when dried in the sun is used as a scent.

Randia acuminata.*

A small tree with large oval fruit.

Randia genipæflora.*

A shrub or small tree.

Randia macrantha.*

A small tree common everywhere. It bears handsome white fragrant bell-flowers. The black pulp around the seed is edible.

Randia malleifera.* Pondei (Mendi).

A small tree bearing very fragrant white bell-flowers. The seeds when ground are mixed with water to make a sort of black paint used by the native women.

Randia sp. near R. macrantha.*

A small tree, 20 feet in height, bearing an oval-shaped fruit.

Randia sp. near R. caudata.*

A small tree, 25 feet high, bearing small but conspicuous fan-shaped fragrant flowers.

Vangueria nigrescens.

A small tree.

Sarcocephalus esculentus.* Sierra Leone Peach. Ameliki (Timani); Golli Nyumbuyambei (Mendi).

A very common tree growing to a height of 25 feet. It has conspicuous white heads of flowers and an edible fruit.

Compositæ.

Vernonia conferta. African Cabbage Tree, the Soap Tree. Kupkup (Timani); Kongoli (Mendi).

A small tree about 25 feet in height, growing in the rain forest. The burnt ashes are used in soap-making and the sediment, when dried, is used as snuff or Lubi.

[63]APPENDIX I

SIERRA LEONE—FOREST EXPORTS

[64]APPENDIX II

SIERRA LEONE—FOREST EXPORTS

[65]APPENDIX III

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF TIMBER IMPORTS INTO SIERRA LEONE, 1902-7 and 1910-15

[66]CHAPTER IV

LIBERIA

I. The Gola Forest.

This comparatively narrow strip of Africa, extending from Cape Palmas on the east to the Mano River on the west, an area of 40,000 square miles, is a Negro Republic under the nominal protection of the United States. It is bounded on the west by the British Colony and Protectorate of Sierra Leone, and on the north and east by the French possessions of Senegal and the French Ivory Coast.

Some years ago a large rubber company was formed to exploit the wild-growing rubber vines and trees, and until recently fairly large amounts were secured. Apart from rubber, however, there are large forests, one of the best being the Gola Forest, on the western boundary and contiguous to the Sierra Leone Protectorate.

This Gola Forest is formed by the confluence of the Morro and Mano Rivers, being thus triangular in shape and approximately 250 square miles in extent. No natives actually live in it, though there are a few villages at the edge, such as Yandahun and Dambarra. The typical forest is seen in the view of the River Morro near the junction of the Mano. Here herds of elephants roam and make tracks through the dense growth of numerous trees; in fact, the only paths there have been made by the elephant. The Chief of Tunkia always has at least ten youths with him learning the art of elephant-hunting, for which a large fee for tuition is paid. In illustrations Nos. 10 and 12 views of the inner parts of the forest are given.

II. The Most Valuable Trees.

The chief species of trees suitable for cutting for export are the following:

1. Mahogany (Khaya ivoriensis), probably, a very well textured wood with some very pretty medullary rays and a thorough sheen on it when planed. Illustration No. 13 shows a specimen of this tree.

2. Satinwood (Afrormosia laxiflora), a large tree with smooth bark, which varies from light green or yellow to an orange-red shade, thus making it very conspicuous in the forest. See illustration No. 11, which shows one of these trees of medium size.

Fig. 10.—Large Brimstone Tree (Sarcocephalus sp.), Gola Forest.

Fig. 11.—African Satinwood (Afrormosia laxiflora). Gola Forest.

To face p. 66.

[67]3. The African Oak (Oldfieldia africana), Paulai of the Mendis is more common in the southern than in the northern part of the forest. It attains a large size, but has not yet been exploited either by a European or a native firm. This is one of the most durable of African timbers. As it has already been described in the chapter on the Sierra Leone trees, further notes on this tree are unnecessary here. Illustrations Nos. 5 and 6 show this tree to advantage, especially its straightness of growth.

4. The real Satinwood (Zanthoxylum macrophyllum), not an uncommon tree, of small size. It is most easily recognised by its very long pinnate leaves. One leaf may attain a length of 6 feet. There is another species of Zanthoxylum which also has a similar kind of timber.

5. African Walnut (Lovoa Klaineana). This tree is not very prevalent, but is scattered in small groups throughout the forest.

6. Cedar Mahogany, a species of Guarea which attains a large size. It is none too prevalent, though it is scattered singly throughout the forest.

7. African Pearwood (Mimusops lacera) is a very good reddish timber, often with figure in the grain. Although much harder than mahogany, it has been sold as such.

8. The Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa) is common near the old farms, but is not so prevalent in the forest proper. It has not yet been exploited from here, nor is it cut locally.

9. The Red Ironwood Tree (Lophira procera) is very prevalent, and attains much the same size as elsewhere. It has not yet been exploited.

10. The so-called Mahogany, the timber of a tree, a species of Parinarium, known as Pauwilli of the Mendis. This is one of the most prevalent trees in the forest. It is also somewhat gregarious, as many as forty specimens being sometimes found in one group. The timber of this tree was exported from Southern Nigeria some years ago. It grows to a height of 150 feet, with a clear bole of 60 feet in height, and upwards of 18 feet in girth. Illustration No. 2 shows the trunk especially, and the base of one of these trees. A most typical scene in the northern part of the Gola Forest is shown in illustration No. 12, several of the trees in that picture being Pauwilli.

All the above-mentioned trees have been cut and exported in the log from various parts of Western Africa. There are, however, several other trees which might be cut and used as export timbers, as, for instance:

11. The White Mahogany (Canarium Schweinfurthii), which attains the same size as elsewhere, but is not so commonly found.

12. Rhodesian Mahogany (Afzelia bracteata?), which is fairly common and attains a medium size.

[68]13. Brachystegia spicæformis, which yields a light-brown hardish timber with very pretty grain. (See illustration No. 104, which shows a very large specimen of this tree in Nigeria.) It is very prevalent, in fact one of the commonest trees in the Gola Forest, so that large quantities of timber could be obtained.

14. Wismah (Sierra Leone name) is also found, and apparently grows up very quickly in old farms.

15. The Red Oak (Berlinia auriculata) is quite prevalent, especially near the banks of streams. It attains a large size, and the timber has been sold as oak in the European market. Here it has not yet been cut.

In addition to the trees which can be felled for conversion into export timbers, there are others which may be cut for sale locally, such as:

16. The Brimstone (Morinda citrifolia?), one of the most suitable trees for the purpose. One of the largest trees was 5 feet in diameter, and had also a clear bole of 50 feet. On the whole it grows to a larger size in the Gola Forest than in Sierra Leone. Illustration No. 10 shows one of these trees from which a timber specimen had been cut.

17. The Hamon, which is apparently a species of Sterculiaceæ, although not of enormous size, has a straight bole, which divides up into four or five very large and thin root flanges. It is one of the most prevalent trees in the forest. Illustration No. 14 shows the peculiar formation of the roots of this tree.

18. Piptadenia africana, a very large tree with small and fine pinnate leaves. It is frequently met with, in fact one of the commonest of the trees in the forest. It yields a hard brown wood which is durable.

19. The so-called Mountain Mahogany, probably a species of Leguminoseæ. It attains a large size, and yields a timber not unlike that of Red Pine.

Up to the present no local or other sawyers have worked in this forest. Although only a few trees have been mentioned which could be cut for use locally, there are many others out of approximately a hundred different kinds which are found in the forest.

There are other products, such as oil beans, obtained from Pentaclethra macrophylla, a large forest tree; gum copal, obtained from Daniellia Ogea, one of the largest forest trees; palm oil and kernels from the Oil Palm (Elæis guineensis), which is found in all the clearings. Piassava, obtained from Raphia vinifera, is found on the banks of the two rivers, Morro and Mano. Rubber could be obtained from the African Rubber Tree (Funtumia elastica) and various rubber vines, such as Landolphia Owariensis, and others. Dika nuts could be procured, as the tree which bears them, Irvingia Barteri, is commonly[69] found; also the Tallow Tree (Pentadesma butyracea), which bears a large number of oil-bearing nuts in its large fruit; the Dita (Detarium Senegalensis), which yields a mango-like fruit, eaten locally. Bitter Kola (Garcinia kola) is found, but not often sold in the local market. The rough-skinned Parinarium excelsum yields a fruit which is eaten locally; the African Star-apple (Chrysophyllum Africanum) is found in the forest, and also planted. In other villages the Akee, being obtained from Blighia sapida, is quite common in the forest, though the edible fruit is not used. The Mackay or Sea Bean (Entada scandens) is a huge creeper which grows to 350 feet in length and 3 feet in girth. Near Dambarra, from a stout specimen hung a complete pod containing fourteen beans.

III. Conditions of Working Timber.

The Mano or Bewa River forms the natural outlet for the extraction of timber, as the Morro River forms one boundary of the Gola Forest, and this river joins the former rather more than half-way through the forest. The Mano River reaches the sea about 80 miles from the end of the forest; thus logs of timber could be brought down the Mano straight into the sea.

Very good timber of various kinds of mahogany has been shipped from several ports, such as Sassandra and Grand Bassam on the Ivory Coast. Good prices, such as 1s. to 2s. 3d. per superficial foot, have usually been paid for this timber. There is therefore no reason why similar timber from Liberia should not fetch equally good rates, when properly cut, squared, and sold under similar conditions.

Conditions of working are very similar on the West Coast of Africa, but may vary somewhat in detail from place to place. However, if at the outset natives accustomed to working timber in Nigeria or the Ivory Coast were employed, good results would be obtained. Gradually a local native staff would be built up, so that the services of those from another part of the coast could be dispensed with and cheaper working thus assured; because imported labour, whether skilled or otherwise, is usually more expensive than that of the locality. Lower shipping rates should be paid from Liberia than from the Ivory Coast or Gold Coast, owing to the distance being less to the European markets where the timber is sold.

The other forests of Liberia should be thoroughly examined to see what amount of timber is there. It is usual to work several areas in conjunction, as the cost of management per unit of output (the log) is thus reduced.

[70]IV. TREES AND RUBBER VINES

Palmæ.

Elæis Guineensis. Oil Palm.

The well-known Oil Palm. It does not thrive in the forests among taller trees. It grows best near villages. (Found in Sierra Leone, too.) Quantities of oil obtained from it. The leaves are used for roof coverings.

Raphia vinifera. Wine Palm.

The leaves used in weaving, brushes, mats, etc. Grows in swampy ground.

Borassus flabellifer and B. Æthiopium. Fan Palm, Piassave.

Both most useful trees. The leaves for roofs, fibre for ropes. The sap made into a sweet kind of toddy. Wood for house and bridge building. The B. Æthiopium grows from 60 to 80 feet high, the leaves 5 to 12 feet long.

Ancistrophyllum.

Fibre used for weaving.

Liliaceæ.

Dracæna surculosa. Dragon’s Blood.

A much branched tree, having white flowers and red berries. Found in Sino Kim, Kakatown and Monrovia.

Moraceæ.

Chlorophora excelsa. Oroko, Teak, African Oak.

A large, well-known tree, used for many purposes where durability is required. Frequently found; it grows well near old farms. It is also found in Sierra Leone. The wood seems to be proof against termites and fungoid diseases. It is the best wood for railway sleepers.

Musanga Smithii. Corkwood.

The first tree to appear after a farm has been abandoned; its thick leaves, when they fall, form a heavy layer of humus.

Antiaris. Fig species.

Fig-like fruit, used in medicine.

Ficus Vogelii. Rubber.

Grows from 20 to 40 feet, yields so-called Balata, or an inferior rubber. Found on St. Paul’s River, Grand Basā.

[71]Ficus sp. Rubber.

Yields rubber; branches reddish colour; grows in the Kuru country.

Ficus Whyteii. Rubber.

A large forest tree yielding abundant rubber.

Myrianthus serratus.

A deciduous tree having mulberry-like fruit of pleasant taste.

Olacaceæ.

Coula edulis.

Bark and leaves have a resinous sap. The oily seeds of this tree are very pleasant to the taste; it has no connection, however, with the Cola Nut.

Anonaceæ.

Xylopia oxypetala. Yellow wood.

A moderate-sized tree with white, scented flowers, growing in the bush of the littoral.

Xylopia Dinklagei.

A small glabrous tree.

Xylopia Æthiopica.

From 30 to 60 feet in height. Fruit aromatic, used as a tonic. Wood elastic, made into masts and oars.

Xylopia humilis.

A small tree with broad top and pendulous branches, growing in the primary forests of the littoral.

Uvaria scabrida.

A moderate-sized tree in the primary forest, found on the banks of the Cestos River.

Uvaria Dinklagei.

Similar to the last; grows in the humid parts of the coast bush.

Uvaria Afzelii.

Similar to the above.

Polyalthia Oliverii.

A small glabrous tree growing in the coast forests.

Popowia Whyteii.

A small tree with glabrous leaves.

Anona muricata. Sour Sop.

A small glabrous tree, the Sour Sop of English colonists.

Anona palustris. Alligator Apple.

A tree with soft wood, used as cork. Fruit edible, frequently made into a refreshing drink. It is found in the swamps of Grand Basā.

[72]Monodora myristica. Calabash Nutmeg.

A small tree having showy flowers and aromatic seed; the much esteemed Calabash Nutmeg of West Africa.

Monodora tenuifolia.

Found in the primary forests of Grand Basā. Very similar to the last; narrower leaved.

Myristicaceæ.

Pycnanthus Dinklagei. Muskat Nut.

Tree reaches the height of 30 feet, with drooping branches. It supplies good timber and oily seeds.

Pycnanthus kombo.

The seeds of this variety contain 73 per cent. of fat and burn like a candle.

Rosaceæ.

Parinarium macrophyllum. Rough-skinned Plum.

A very common tree, used locally for building purposes; oak-like texture. Fruit yellow, the size of a goose-egg; sometimes called Gingerbread Plum.

Parinarium excelsum. Wild Plum.

Parinarium sp. Wild Plum.

Also found in Sierra Leone. Used for building locally; grain too open for export. P. excelsum and sp. very similar.

Chrysobalanus icaco. Cocoa Plum.

Chrysobalanus ellipticus. Cocoa Plum.

A tall shrub or small tree, with greenish-purple edible fruit known as Cocoa Plums. These two are very similar; both found near Grand Basā.

Leguminosæ.

Lonchocarpus laxiflora. Mountain Mahogany.

Supplies a good useful wood and dyes. It is also found in Sierra Leone.

Lonchocarpus sericeus.

An ornamental tree with downy twigs, reddish-violet papilionaceous flowers; wood hard and heavy, not very well known. Found in Grand Basā.

Lonchocarpus Barteri.

Similar to L. sericeus, but a loftier tree.

Lonchocarpus Zenkeri.

Entada scandens. Mackay or Sea Bean.

The well-known liana, the fibre used in rope and net making.

[73]Dialium Senegalense. Black Tumbler.

A hard wood, useful in the building trade; also grows in Sierra Leone.

Dialium Englerii.

Timber useful for many purposes. A refreshing drink is made from the edible fruit.

Dialium Dinklagei.

A small tree with umbrella-like top.

Albizzia fastigiata. Albizzia.

All Albizzias are proof against termites. Wood used where durability is required, and therefore very valuable. The branches are pendulous, flowers white and fragrant. Found in Monrovia and Sino Basin.

Albizzia Brownei. Albizzia.

A hard, useful wood. A large forest tree with cracked greyish bark.

Albizzia sp. Albizzia.

A large tree of good form and hard wood. The tree cylinder-shaped, heartwood a bright, pretty colour. Not very plentiful. Quite worthy of export.

Detarium Senegalense. Mahogany, Dita.

A beautifully marked hard wood, with a bole of 30 feet and girth of 12 feet.

Pentaclethra macrophylla. Oil Bean Tree.

Yields oil-bearing seeds or beans, used as an article of food. The ashes after burning the dry pods are useful in soap-making.

Parkia filicoidea. Forest Locust or Locust Bean.

A very common tree in Liberia, but wood of little value. The bean is eaten locally.

Erythrina Senegalense.

Deeply cleft bark; wood of little value.

Piptadenia Africana.

It grows everywhere in great quantities in Liberia. The wood is hard and valuable.

Afrormosia laxiflora. Satinwood.

A beautiful clear brown wood, used for building purposes.

Baphia nitida. Camwood.

Very valuable as a red dye-wood.

Baphia pubescens. Camwood.

Valuable dye-wood.

Cassia podocarpa.

Grows best on very dry ground; common on native farms, 70 miles up the St. Paul River. Wood extraordinarily hard.

Mimosa Dinklagei.

A small tree found in the coast woods of Grand Basā.

[74]Daniellia Ogea. Benin Gum Copal.

Wood soft. When the tree has attained a large size, it is attacked by the boring beetle; the gum then exudes and falls to the ground, and is so collected. Value, 5d. or 6d. a pound.

Daniellia sp. Gum Copal sp.

Very similar to the C. Ogea.

Didelotia Engleri.

A small tree found in the humid woods of the coast.

Polystemonanthus Dinklagei.

A small tree growing on the banks of St. John’s River, Grand Basā.

Xylia Evansii.

Beautiful plumed trees; small heads of flowers. A pretty ornamental tree.

Rutaceæ.

Zanthoxylon sp. Satinwood.

Fairly hard wood, with rough, knotty bark in the shape of cone-like, woody protrusions.

Zanthoxylon macrophyllum. Spiny Satinwood.

Smaller than the last, but somewhat similar; the wood a very pretty yellow, with open grain.

Citrus aurantium. Common Orange.

A very ornamental tree. Leaves and buds used in perfumery. Fruit edible, valuable for export. Timber useful in many ways.

Simarubaceæ.

Irvingia Barteri. Dika Nut or Borbor.

The fruit is edible, seeds oily. Dika butter, dika bread and a kind of chocolate are made from it. The wood is also used.

Burseraceæ.

Canarium Schweinfurthii.

Wood useful in commerce. The oily seeds are edible.

Meliaceæ.

Lovoa Klaineana. African Walnut.

Has a shady crown of branches. A good shade tree.

Carapa procera. Crabwood.

A small tree cut and sold as cedar mahogany for building purposes.

[75]Carapa Gayensis.

This tree supplies a good timber; the oily seeds are used in medicine.

Pseudocedrela. Cedar Mahogany or African Walnut.

The tree is 65 feet in height, wood used for building purposes and for furniture; not very common. It should be a useful export timber.

Trichilia Heudelotii.

A small tree; wood easy to work; not well known.

Khaya grandis. Benin Mahogany.

A fine tree, sometimes attaining the height of 130 feet, and 14 feet in diameter. The trunk has slight root flanges. The wood of a beautiful surface, a most valuable wood in furniture and carriage making.

Guarea Africana. Satin Mahogany.

Grain similar to mahogany and might be sold for it. Should be a useful export wood.

Pynærtia ealænsis.

Not very well known; flowers in long, showy panicles.

Euphorbiaceæ.

Ricinodendron Heudelotii.? Mahogany.

Sold as mahogany. The wood is used locally for boat-building. The tree seeds readily, so could easily be planted.

Hasskarlia didymostemon.

Attains the height of 40 to 80 feet; leaves yellowish-green and yellow catkins. Not well known.

Oldfieldia Africana. Real African Oak.

A tall, fine tree, with a bole of 50 feet and girth of 16 feet. Most useful in boat-building, especially for the keels. It seeds very readily. Many years ago it was exported as teak (1827-35), though this afterwards ceased.

Anacardiaceæ.

Mangifera. Mango species, Greenheart.

The Mango Tree, very plentiful. It attains a girth of 12 feet. A greyish wood used for building purposes.

Mangifera sp. Bush Pawpaw.

Used in building.

Mangifera sp. Whitewood.

Used in building.

Odina acida.

A small deciduous, glabrous tree; the powdered bark, mixed with other substances, used as a paint for the face.

[76]Spondias lutea.

A tall, glabrous tree, with yellow, plum-like fruits, which are edible. They are often made into a refreshing drink. The wood bright-coloured and hard; it has the useful quality of growing when put in as fence posts.

Sapindaceæ.

Blighia sapida. Akee.

A useful shade tree near dwellings, growing to the height of 97½ feet. Wood light yellow in colour.

Allophyllus Africana.

A small, common tree with hard, blackish fruit, growing along the coast of Grand Basā; wood useful in many ways.

Dodonæa viscosa.

A small tree having viscid branchlets saturated with resin, which serve as torches. The wood is used for engraving and in turnery.

Malvaceæ.

Gossypium Peruvianum. Kidney-tree Cotton.

These African cotton-plants are still imperfectly known. Probably used locally.

Bombacaceæ.

Eriodendron anfractuosum. Cotton Tree.

Grows to the height of 160 feet. Smooth, bright grey bark, having cracked appearance. Wood not of much value in commerce. Handsome, brilliant crimson flowers.

Bombax Buonopozense. Red Cotton Tree.

A large deciduous tree, often attaining 162 feet in height, with tuberculate, prickly bark and scarlet flowers with firm, velvety petals. Wood of little value in commerce.

Sterculiaceæ.

Sterculia oblonga. Yellow Wood.

A tree of medium height, the wood soft, and fibre strong and tough. Exudes gum.

Sterculia sp.

Fruit edible, the oily seeds used medicinally.

Triplochiton.

Fruit winged, flowers panicled, leaves ragged.

[77]Cola acuminata. Cola.

Much like the Poplar in appearance. The wood is used in ship-building, house-building and furniture. The oily, edible Cola Nut is in great demand.

Cola digitata.

The oily seeds much used in medicine.

Heritiera utilis.

The timber hard and useful for various purposes, the bark in tanning. Fruit woody.

Dilleniaceæ.

Tetracera potatoria. Water Tree.

A small, hairy tree growing on the dry and sunny parts of the coast savannahs. It yields a profuse amount of water from the stems; hence its name.

Tetracera leiocarpa.

Very similar to the above. Used as a medicine by the natives.

Tetracera Dinklagei.

Similar to the other Tetracera species.

Tetracera sp. White Cedar.

Reaches a girth of 10 or 12 feet. Wood soft and grain too open for export.

Ochnaceæ.

Lophira procera. African Oak or Red Ironwood.

This tree yields oil-bearing seeds. The wood is hard and heavy, of a reddish brown. Sold as African Oak. The wood is also used in charcoal-making.

Guttiferæ.

Pentadesma. Butter or Tallow Tree.

A tall, slender tree growing by the streams. Wood light in colour, useful in various ways. Also found in Sierra Leone.

Garcinia kola. Bitter Cola.

A large but slow-growing tree, with a hard, prettily grained wood, rather uncommon.

Garcinia sp.? Mahogany.

The wood sometimes sold as mahogany.

Garcinia sp. Chew-stick.

The smaller roots are used as chew-sticks, but taking these in the drastic method in which it is done generally means death to the tree. It is found on summits of the mountains.

[78]Flacourtiaceæ.

Smeathmannia lævigata.

Smeathmannia sp.

The buds are single, growing in the axils of the leaves. Leaves toothed. There are fifteen species of this tree; not very common. Wood of little value.

Rhizophoraceæ.

Rhizophora mangle.

The Mangrove species. It grows in swamps or on the banks of rivers of Liberia. The wood is hard and heavy but easily worked; much used for poles and firewood, the bark in tanning.

Rhizophora racemosa.

The Mangrove species. Very similar to the above.

Myrtaceæ.

Psidium guajava. Guava.

A small tree growing near Monrovia. Fruit edible, the well-known Guava of commerce.

Sapotaceæ.

Mimusops sp. The Bobby Water or Benin Mahogany.

A very common kind of Mahogany, attaining a bole of 50 feet and girth of 12 feet. It will grow at a higher elevation than most forest trees. Wood very useful in the making of furniture.

Mimusops lacera. African Pearwood.

A tall, fine-looking tree, with good bole. It would pay to plant these unsparingly. It grows well near the coast. The hard, red wood is very useful and most valuable in furniture-making, inlaying, veneering, etc.

Chrysophyllum sp.

A tree of medium height. Fruit edible. The wood not well known in commerce.

Sideroxylon longistylum.

This tree supplies a good timber. The fruit is edible.

Omphalocarpum.

A kind of Guttapercha is obtained from this tree. It supplies also a good, useful timber.

Apocynaceæ.

Rauwolfia vomitoria. Swizzle-stick.

A good workable timber is obtained from it. Stone fruit.

[79]Funtumia Africana. False Rubber Tree.

The rubber is useless, being sticky, like birdlime. Height from 15 to 20 feet.

Funtumia sp. Boxwood.

Much the same as above. Found also in Sierra Leone.

Funtumia elastica. True Rubber Tree.

One of the most important rubber-trees of Africa (also Sierra Leone); produces good rubber. Height 100 feet.

Conopharyngia. Rubber.

Another rubber-tree, yielding only small quantities, of little use in commerce.

Landolphia Owariensis. Vine Rubber.

Another of the best rubber-trees; grows in the Sino Basin.

Landolphia jenje. Vine or White Ball Rubber.

A very good rubber, even better than L. Owariensis.

Bignoniaceæ.

Newbouldia lævis.

A pinnate-leaved tree with dense panicles of pink flowers like the foxglove; the fruit long and slender. The bright-coloured wood is very even in texture, much used in fence-making.

Rubiaceæ.

Sarcocephalus esculentus. Sierra Leone Peach.

Flowers in large heads, white and fragrant. Deep-red fruit, the peach of the country, the size of a man’s fist. The wood much used for inlaying.

Morinda sp.? Brimstone.

A tree with bole of 50 feet in height, girth from 16 to 20 feet. The wood is bright yellow in colour, not of much value, but the root-wood is sold in the native markets for yellow dye and the bole wood for weather-boards. It is very hard and resists attacks of insects.

Randia maculata.

A very pretty ornamental tree, with glossy leaves and white flowers.

Coffea Liberica. Liberian Coffee.

A tree about 20 feet in height. Coffee-berries the size of a cherry.

[80]APPENDIX

LIBERIA—FOREST EXPORTS

Fig. 12.—Gola Forest, general view, near Morro River.

Fig. 13.—Mahogany (Khaya Ivoriensis), the late Mr. C. W. Smythe standing beside it, Gola Forest.

Fig. 14.—Young Yawey Cedar (Heritiera?), Gola Forest.

To face p. 80.

[81]CHAPTER V

THE IVORY COAST

Thanks to Monsieur Auguste Chevalier’s very varied and extensive travels on the Ivory Coast, we have obtained very graphic descriptions of the belt of forest extending nearly 150 miles inland and parallel to the coast.

In his books Les Végétaux Utiles de l’Afrique Tropicale Française, Fasc. V., Première Etude sur les Bois de la Côte d’Ivoire, and Les Végétaux utiles de l’Afrique tropicale française, Fasc. VII (Première Partie), Documents sur le Palmier à Huile, on the vegetation of this French Colony, not only are there general descriptions of some of the best and most accessible forests, but also there are full descriptions of the individual trees, together with most of their botanical and most valuable vernacular names.

Considering that the area of the Ivory Coast is 130,000 square miles, and the forest belt about 150 miles wide, the mahogany industry should be still further developed than it is at the present time.

So far, on the average, the Ivory Coast has been noted for its figured mahogany, the Ports of Grand Bassam, Assinie (a town and river of Upper Guinea), and La Hou being the most noted, and having given almost their name to different classes of Ivory Coast mahogany. For several reasons this type of mahogany has fetched higher prices than that of the average from elsewhere. Sassandra, at the mouth of a similar named river, and also Cavally, on the Cavally, are minor ports for the shipment of mahogany.

First and foremost the wood obtained from what Monsieur Chevalier terms Khaya Ivoriensis is of a much more sheeny nature than that of either Khaya Senegalensis, Khaya grandis or Khaya Punchii.

In the next place, the method of working is most peculiar. Usually, individual natives cut a few trees at a time, standing nearest a waterway or lagoon; in fact, these were picked trees which the natives thought contained figured wood, and this had the effect of only a one-sided working of the forest, thus leaving many other valuable trees. On the average, the distribution of the numbers and of the various species is about the same as in other parts of West Africa. Apparently many of the ordinary trees have often been left standing, or at any rate most of those which are too inaccessible. A tree standing more than about[82] a mile from water is too far for a native working almost single-handed, and only collecting a few labourers for hauling his logs to the waterway.

In recent years, however, British as well as French firms, with a larger amount of capital, have started to work the forests. Regulations have been drawn up by the local Government in a similar manner and of a similar nature to those in force generally on the West Coast of Africa. The Government also has built a railway passing through and near some of the forests north of Grand Bassam. Since its inception, a further impetus has been given to the mahogany trade. However, in the matter of water transport, the rivers of the Ivory Coast, such as the Tano, mostly flowing in British territory, but emptying itself into the sea at Assinie (the port for logs in French territory), the Yar or Abi, the Komoe, the Zini, and Bandana, the Sassandra and Cavally, can none of them be said to be at all good for the floating out of logs. La Hou is the port for the Bandana and Zini Rivers, after their junction; Sassandra is the port for the Sassandra and Cavally for the Cavally. At the mouth of each of them there is a shallow bar, and this in turn causes a bad surf, and in other parts the coast lacks harbours, and the formation of it is unsuitable for the shipment of timber. No doubt, as time goes on, an effective means will be invented for dealing with the passage of the logs through the surf, especially at the mouths of rivers. So far, from all accounts, the rivers themselves have not been cleared of snags and rocky obstructions for the transport of the timber. This factor again has reacted on the output, and many of the finest forests remain unworked. Owing to the fact of this accidental policy of only cutting the best mahogany trees, the intensive exploitation of the forests by cutting other species of trees (the timber of which has already found a market in Europe) has been greatly hindered. Among such timbers are the following:

• Khaya Ivoriensis,
• Chlorophora excelsa,
• Lophira alata,
• Afzelia microcarpa,
• Entandrophragma macrophylla,
• Canarium Schweinfurthii, or Occidentalis.

On the whole, English firms working on the Ivory Coast have been encouraged and not hindered, but some of the minor regulations appear to be rather irksome and vexatious in their working, and the firms have felt that their tenure of the forest rights was not quite so secure as elsewhere in West Africa.

The export duties placed on mahogany cut on the banks of the Tano in Gold Coast territory are almost of such a nature as to prohibit the profitable working of the Tano forests.

[83]LIST OF TREES

(Chevalier’s.)

Pandanaceæ.

Pandanus candelabrum. Sometimes known as Screw Pine.

A well-branched tree, supported by aerial roots; leaves spinous and in dense spirals.

Palmæ.

Borassus flabellifer Ronier (Colons); Dendo (Attie); Makube (Fanti); Ekube (Agni).

Liliaceæ.

Dracæna Perrotetti. Nkiebe (Mbonoi); Adjonde (Ebrie).

Ulmaceæ.

Celtis integrifolia. Mgua (Abe); Tongo (Bondoukou).

Moraceæ.

Antiaris toxiaria. Ake (Mbonoi).

Chlorophora excelsa. Corkwood (English); Akede (Abe); Bakana (Fanti); Guele (Bondoukou); Elui (Agni); Bonzo (Bambara); Agui (Ebrie); Odum (Appollonien).

Ficus Goliath. Abono (Mbonoi).

Ficus Guineensis. Aturn (Mbonoi).

Ficus sp. Mekhi (Attie); Diangue (Agni); Karfa (Bambara).

Pontya excelsa. Metchi (Attie); Triwa (Agni).

Morus mesozygia. Bana (Attie); Cecerui (Agni).

Musanga Smithii. Parasolier (Colons); Loho (Abe); Guima Djuna (Bondoukou); Egui (Agni); Congo-congo (Gabonais).

Myrianthus arboreus. Agnon (Abe); Atolaie (Mbonoi); Agniere (Ebrie).

Myrianthus serratus. Nianga-magui (English); Diancangue (Attie); Nianga (Agni); Nianga-magui (Indenie).

Treculia africana. Izaquente Portugais (Colons); Yukugo (Bondoukou).

Olacaceæ.

Coula edulis. Atsan (Attie); Bogüe (Agni); Akion (Ebrie).

Ongokea Klaineana. So (Abe).

Strombosia pustulata. Myole Polie (Abe); Patabua (Bondoukou); Fognian (Mbonoi).

[84]Octoknemataceæ.

Octoknema affinis. Guangua (Attie).

Anonaceæ.

Cleistopholis patens. Kotopuan (Attie); Bofu (Fanti); Eutie (Agni).

Enantia chlorantha. Mbawe (Abe); Esuro (Attie).

Monodora myristica. Mbang (Attie); Efuen (Agni); Hane (Ebrie).

Stenanthera hamata. T’sainfi (Attie); Surua (Agni).

Pachypodanthium.

Xylopia æthiopica. Ethiopian pepper (Colons); Fonde (Attie); Efomu (Agni); Endiar or N’diar (Wolof).

Xylopia parviflora.

Myristicaceæ.

Cœlocaryon oxycarpum. Kinkonawon (Mbonoi).

Pycnanthus Kombo. Walehe (Abe); Hetere (Bondoukou); Etama (Agni); Anaküe (Mbonoi); Edna (Appolonien).

Capparidaceæ.

Buchholzia macrophylla. Mon (Attie); Akotompo (Fanti); Amizi (Agni); Do (Trepo).

Rosaceæ.

Chrysobalanus ellipticus. Hanfuru (Agni).

Parinarium robustum. Aroba (Mbonoi).

Parinarium tenuifolium. Simua (Attie); Gatesima (Mbonoi).

Leguminosæ.

Albizzia fastigiata. San (Attie); Piampian (Fanti); Kuanguan (Agni).

Albizzia ferruginea.

Albizzia gigantea. Turndogo, Bosole (Bondoukou).

Albizzia rhombifolia. Küe (Attie); Pranpran (Fanti); Kure (Agni).

Afzelia microcarpa. Asemigniri (Mbonoi).

Aphanocalyx sp. Redwood (Colons); Taceribe (Mbonoi); Arabmetu (Adionkron).

Baphia nitida. Camwood (English); Tte (Attie); Ekuro (Fanti); Exin (Agni); Eseme (Mbonoi).

Berlinia acuminata. Beguan (Attie); Gueguirotta baka (Agni).

Cynometra Vogelii. Tiupe (Attie).

Cynometra cryptosepalum. Kiukuesin (Attie); Patapara (Agni).

Daniellia oblonga. Trakuan (Attie); Kuangua (Agni).

Dialium Dinklagei.

Dialium Guineense. Fe (Attie); Warie (Agni).

[85]Erythrophlœum Ivoriensis. Amerere (Agni).

Erythrophlœum Guineense. Erüi (Agni); Teli (Bambara); Aranhe (Mbonoi).

Lonchocarpus sericeus. Acacia de Gabon (Colons); Akuosi, Amba (Fanti); Ekopa (Agni).

Macrolobium Palisoti.

Milletia sp. Vandaküe (Attie); Bakahehessi (Agni); Ekimi (Mbonoi).

Parkia Agboensis. Lo (Abe); Dogo (Bondoukou); Asama (Mbonoi).

Pentaclethra macrophylla. Owala (Gabonais).

Piptadenia Africana. Bon (Attie); Nainvi (Bondoukou); Kuangua iniama (Agni).

Piptadenia Chevalieri. Lo (Attie).

Pterocarpus esculentus. Totohote (Attie); Assihaoto (Agni).

Tetrapleura Thonningii.

Pandaceæ.

Porphyranthus Zenkeri. Tebo (Attie); Akwankusuma (Fanti); Akuana (Agni).

Linaceæ.

Phyllocosmus Africanus.

Humiriaceæ.

Saccoglottis Gabunensis. Amuan (Attie).

Rutaceæ.

Fagara macrophylla. Hanwego (Bondoukou); Kengüe (Mbonoi).

Zanthoxylum parvifolium. M’Bon (Attie); Kanton (Fanti); Hendje, Hengué (Agni).

Simarubaceæ.

Hannoa Klaineana. Haiefai? (Abe); Neube? (Attie); Hete bake (Mbonoi).

Irvingia. Akwabu (Mbonoi); Lubigniati (Adionkron).

Mannia Africana. Hate (Attie); Sotibia (Fanti); Bomoku (Agni); Akodo (Mbonoi).

Burseraceæ.

Canarium Occidentalis. Okume d’Ivoire (Colons); Segna (Attie); Krendja Haigue (Agni).

Meliaceæ.

Bingeria Africana. Hakue (Attie); Hague (Agni).

Carapa microcarpa. Dona (Abe); Kuli pia (Bondoukou); Kobi (Bambara).

[86]Carapa velutina. Bibiabe (Attie); Akumasse (Fanti); Sorowa (Agni).

Charia Indeniensis. Zacoba (Attie); Zacoba (Agni).

Entandrophragma ferruginea. Locobo (Attie); Tiamatiama (Agni).

Entandrophragma macrophylla. Baka-biringui (Abe); Lokoba (Attie); Kaiguigo (Bondoukou); Makua (Mbonoi); Tiamatiama (Appolonien).

Entandrophragma rufa. Cedrat (Colons); Kaiguigo (Bondoukou).

Entandrophragma Septentrionalis. Baka-birin-gui (Abe); Keiwgo (Bondoukou).

Khaya Ivoriensis. Bariba or Biribi (Colons); Ekuie (Abe); Lokobua (Attie); Dukuma Dugura (Agni); Humpe (Ebrie); Tiamatiama (Appolonien).

Pynærtia Occidentalis. Hainde (Agni); Kassekui (Mbonoi); Dubiri Keguigo (Appolonien).

Trichilia Candollei. Tanna (English); Fe (Attie); Tenuba, Tanuba (Agni).

Trichilia cedrata. Ngnanake (Abe); Mbosse (Agni); Anokue (Mbonoi).

Trichilia acutifoliata.

Euphorbiaceæ.

Macaranga Heudelotii. Abo (Attie); Eson (Fanti); Ekna (Agni).

Mæsobotrya Stapfiana. Senan (Attie); Emuinguim (Fanti); Asa bogüie (Agni).

Oldfieldia Africana. African Teak (English); Fu (Attie); Etüi (Agni).

Ricinodendron Africanus. Hobo Hapi (Abe); Isain (Attie); Sosaü (Fanti); Haipi (Bondoukou); Haipi (Agni); Poposi (Mbonoi); Poposi (Ebrie); Nbob (Moyen Cavally).

Uapaca Benguelensis. African Oak (English); Chêne d’Afrique (Colons); Rikio (Abe); Niondobi (Bondoukou); Cosomon (Bambara); Sannaba (Mbonoi).

Uapaca Bingervillensis. Rikio (Abe); Na (Attie); Kayo (Bondoukou); Elekhua (Agni); Orobo (Mbonoi).

Alchornea sp. Bonyurome (Mbonoi); Aguaya (Ebrie); Tatairo (Moyen Cavally).

Baccaurea Bonneti. Habizacue (Attie); Kuatiecuale (Agni).

Bridelia speciosa. Chicue (Attie).

Hasskarlia didymostemon. Nguepe (Attie); Echirua (Agni).

Anacardiaceæ.

Hæmatostaphis Barteri. Vi (Abe); Esanke, Esangue (Attie).

Lannea acidissima. Ngolo ngoloti (Abe); Tchiko (Attie); Kakoro (Fanti); Durgo, Duroko, Duko (Bondoukou); Borepore (Agni).

[87]Lannea sp. Ebruke (Attie); Bembe (Bambara).

Spondias lutea. Ngua (Abe); Ningo (Bambara); Haperrie (Mbonoi).

Icacinaceæ.

Leptaulus daphnoides. Paradedi (Attie); Eborodumuen (Agni).

Sapindaceæ.

Blighia sapida. Sago (Bondoukou); Finzan (Bambara).

Deinbollia Indeniensis. Ngua, Abo (Attie); Ekosuba, Zenna, Kerenya (Agni); Kaüsa (Indenie).

Placodiscus pseudostipularis. Para dakue (Attie).

Tiliaceæ.

Duboscia macrocarpa. Pianro (Agni).

Bombacaceæ.

Bombax Buonopozense.

Sterculiaceæ.

Cola cordifolia. Awa (Attie); Amhio (Bondoukou); Dabudabu (Agni); Ntaba (Bambara).

Cola mirabilis. Gnibi (Attie); Kamou aguire (Agni).

Cola proteiformis. Kouanda (Attie); Kokotsi (Fanti); Guiangon (Agni).

Cola vera. Awasse (Abe); Lo (Attie); Buesse (Mbonoi); Hapo (Ebrie); Guere (Neyau); Guresu (Bete); Hure (Plapo); We (Trepo); Halu (Adionkron).

Pterygota cordifolia. Ape (Attie); Sounoum (Fanti); Ware Borf ware (Agni).

Sterculia oblonga. Azodo (Abe).

Sterculia tragacantha. Porepore (Abe); Botapia (Attie); Lomburu (Bondoukou); Kotokie (Indenia).

Triplochiton scleroxylon. Hofa (Abe); Samba, Sankamba (Bondoukou); Batabua (Agni); Wa-wa (Appolonien); Wa-wa (Indenia).

Scytopetalaceæ.

Rhaptopetalum Tieghemi. Mosangui (Attie); Djo Arbi (Mbonoi).

Ochnaceæ.

Lophira procera. Nokue (Attie); Esore (Agni).

Guttiferæ.

Allanblackia parviflora. Wohotelimon (Abe); Bissaboko (Attie); Akumase (Fanti); Alabenun (Agni); Wotobe Ewotebo (Mbonoi).

[88]Garcinia polyantha. Mamie Kini (Agni).

Ochrocarpus Africanus. African Apricot (Colons); Quelipe Kelipe (Bondoukou).

Pentadesma leucantha. Piche Aboko (Attie); Allahbanunu (Agni).

Symphonia globulifera. Arquane (Mbonoi).

Flacourtiaceæ.

Homalium Africanum. Akouibia (Fanti); Akoima (Agni).

Scottellia coriaceæ. Bakaza (Attie); Aburuhi (Fanti).

Scottellia Kamerunensis. Akosica (Abe); Edde (Mbonoi).

Rhizophoraceæ.

Rhizophora racemosa. Paletuvier rouge (Colons); Ntagne (Attie); Koghia bera (Fanti); Ende (Agni).

Combretaceæ.

Anogeissus sp. Kakaleka (Bondoukou); Krekete (Bambara).

Combretodendron viridiflora. Kati (Abe); Esive (Mbonoi).

Terminalia altissima. Pe (Abe); Fram (Bondoukou); Frake (Agni).

Terminalia Ivoriensis. Satinwood (English); Mboti, Buma (Attie); Tuhidja (Bondoukou); Framine (Agni); Fela (Bambara); Cauri (Mbonoi).

Myrtaceæ.

Eugenia syzygium. Amerere (Agni).

Melastomaceæ.

Memecylon polyanthemos. Taisin (Attie); Tai (Agni).

Ebenaceæ.

Diospyros sanza. Nguobi, Kusibiri (Attie); Sanza, Minika, Asun, Seka (Agni).

Oleaceæ.

Linociera Mannii. Akodiombi, Zakuebiembi (Attie); Akokotsua (Fanti); Aqua egbua (Agni); Akoriie (Indenie).

Loganiaceæ.

Anthocleista nobilis. Buro-Nuro (Mbonoi).

Apocynaceæ.

Alstonia Congensis. Kokue (Attie).

Conopharyngia crassa. Choka (Attie); Akotompo Atsim (Fanti); Pakie-pakie, Kuakie-kuakie (Agni); Apukur (Mbonoi).

[89]Funtumia Africana. Pesin (Attie); Wala (Bondoukou).

Funtumia elastica. Pechi (Attie); Poyndua (Fanti); Efurumundu (Agni); Ofuntum (Appolonien); Twe (Neyau); Uruba su (Bete); Dorose-Populu (Plapo); Bebeti (Moyen Cavally).

Picralima Elliotii. Hainfain (Attie); Kakana (Agni).

Rauwolfia vomitoria. Embi-siembi (Agni); Gonguonkiur (Mbonoi).

Verbenaceæ.

Vitex micrantha. Kiangu (Mbonoi).

Bignoniaceæ.

Spathodea campanulata. Tulipier de Gabon (Colons); Kokomazur (Mbonoi).

Rubiaceæ.

Grumilea vanosa. Tchiat Kottse (Attie); Aburese baka (Agni).

Gardenia viscidissima.

Mitragyne macrophylla. Sofo (Attie); Bahia (Agni).

Morinda citrifolia. Alongua (Bondoukou); Sangongo (Bambara).

Pseudocinchona Africana. Mbrahu (Abe); Kiumba (Bondoukou).

Sarcocephalus esculentus. Tetere (Mbonoi).

Sarcocephalus Pobeguini. Ndebere (Attie); Ekusamba (Fanti); Boisima (Agni); Zeronga (Bambara).

[90]APPENDIX

IVORY COAST—FOREST EXPORTS

Fig. 15.—Teak Plantation of 1908, 35¾ feet high, Sokode, in 1911.

Fig. 16.—Teak Plantation of 1907 and 1908 on Hill-side, Atakpame.

[91]CHAPTER VI

THE GOLD COAST

Area, 80,000 square miles.

During 1909, a most interesting and exhaustive Report on the Forest of the Gold Coast, as well as Ashanti and the Northern Territories, was written by Mr. H. N. Thompson, the Chief Conservator of Forests of Nigeria. As a result of this Report, a Forest Department was formed in 1910. This Forest Department now consists of a Conservator, Deputy, and three Assistant Conservators of Forests. However, legislation for the proper preservation of the forest and creation of Forest Reserves has not been passed, so that the scope of the Forest Department’s usefulness has been much curtailed.

It would be quite superfluous here to try and describe the forests in such a masterly fashion as has been done by Mr. Thompson, but anyone who is interested in the Gold Coast Forests should read the Report for themselves. It will suffice to give an outline of the main features of the Forest Administration and a general description of the forests.

With the author’s permission I have given a list of the timber-trees, together with the botanical names, so far as they are known.

The people of this very rich country have in a short-sighted way very much hindered real progress in Forestry by refusing to assist in the creation of Forest Reserves. Forest Reserves are, of course, simply forest permanently set aside for the production of timber or other such forest products. The people of the Gold Coast have, apparently, judging by extracts from the local Press, got the idea into their heads that the making of a Forest Reserve necessarily means the ownership of the land on which the forest stands passing into the possession of the Government. This, of course, is quite a contrary view to the true conception of a Forest Reserve, which is an area set apart by the Supreme Government as a forest for the permanent production of timber, etc., and usually managed by the Forest Department of the country. It may be a State forest, a communal forest, a municipal forest, or even a private forest which is thus placed under Forest Laws as a Forest Reserve. The user (that is, the man who has the right of usufruct in it) is not generally in a position to protect it thoroughly, and to some extent foregoes present temporary profits for future permanent returns.

[92]The diverse forms of forests named above, under the permanent management of the State, are seen in Switzerland, Germany, France, Russia, Japan, and India, not to mention Nigeria, so that it cannot be called an isolated system.

The cocoa industry has quite overshadowed that of collecting palm fruit, making palm oil, and cracking of palm nuts to obtain the kernels, with the result that these exports are small compared with Sierra Leone even, which is a much smaller colony, with a climate less propitious for palm-trees.

The following table shows the exports for the last five years:

In the year 1913 forest produce, in the shape of logs, etc., to the value of £3,327,743 was exported. It would be disastrous to the country if a few loud-voiced, narrow-minded people were to prevent proper measures being adopted for the welfare of the country. Considering their previous education and small experience in these wide economic matters, it is only natural that they should take this view, but, on the other hand, that is no reason why the Supreme Government should not do what is necessary for the future permanent benefit of the country. A child is not allowed to play with fire, although it may very much like to see the flames; in the same way the British people, as locally represented by the Gold Coast Government, cannot allow the inhabitants of the district to play fast and loose with their priceless treasures, the African forests, well knowing that the country will be permanently injured thereby. Examples are to be found to-day of countries which have allowed their forests to be destroyed. Spain and Portugal are typical of this, and even in Africa one has the spectacle of France putting untold millions into Forestry in Algeria in order to restore the rainfall. Morocco and Mesopotamia are further examples of countries in a similar condition, where the forests have been destroyed. Palestine, with its ancient forests of Lebanon, is the most drastic example of forest destruction, quite apart from Turkish misrule. A similar process has taken place in the Soudan, and this locality is only now being laboriously re-afforested by the Forest Department there. In India, European countries, Canada, Australia, and in the United States it has been proved that it is only by a central Government Agency that the forests will be properly preserved both for this generation and the next; therefore, before it is too late, it behoves the Gold Coast people to recognise their responsibility to future generations and allow the necessary legislation, so that the forests may be preserved and rightly utilised.

[93]LIST OF INDIGENOUS TREES AND RUBBER VINES

(From Mr. H. N. Thompson’s Report on the Gold Coast Forests.)

Pandanaceæ.

Pandanus sp. Ntung (Fanti); Ntung (Ashanti); Ndau (Apollonian); Ndau (Aowin); Ekpa (Krepi).

Screw Pine. Often found near villages on the coast and where drier conditions prevail, in sheltered spots. Reaches height of 30 feet. Leaves used in mat-making.

Gramineæ.

Bamboo sp.

Some of these attain a great height. Used for many purposes by the natives.

Cyperaceæ.

Bulbostylis barbata.

Bulbostylis laniceps.

Quite small trees.

Palmæ.

Ancistrophyllum sp. Eye (Fanti).

Large kind of rattan. Scandent palm.

Borassus flabellifer. Makube (Fanti); Makube (Ashanti); Kube (Akwapim); Malankwi (Apollonian); Ago (Quitta); Ago (Krepi); Ago (Accra).

Borassus æthiopica.

The wood, exclusive of pith, extremely hard. Pericarp of nut edible. Savannah forests.

Raphia vinifera. Adube and Doka (Fanti); Doka (Ashanti); Tombo (general West Coast); Doka (Apollonian); Doka (Aowin); Alati (Quitta); Alati (Krepi).

Raphia Hookeri.

Wine (from stem) and bamboo palm. Piassava fibre prepared from the rachis and the leaves, poles from bamboo in building; pinnæ for baskets and thatch. Seed beaten to pulp thrown in water to catch fish.

Elæis Guineensis. Abe (Fanti); Arere, Abeletia (Apollonian); Beteng (Aowin); Ede (Quitta); Ede (Krepi).

Oil Palm of commerce. Derived from this tree, also, the chief supply of palm wine and piassava fibre. The coast natives use the leaf rachis for building and the leaves for thatch.

[94]Calamus Barteri.

Scandent palm.

Calamus deerratus. (West) Uwatia and Oyea (Ash.) (Ashanti).

The common rattan; marshes.

Cocos nucifera. Kube (Fanti); Kukwi (Ashanti); Ajui (Aowin); Eue (Quitta); Eavune (Krepi); Hukwi (Axim).

Cocoanut, found in the vicinity of villages on the coast, sometimes inland.

Fan Palm or Doum. Ago (general West Coast).

Wood provides beams for building; fruit edible; leaves for thatching; and a strong wine is made from the stem.

Phœnix reclinata, or Wild Date Palm. Euchresia (Fanti); Mileishia (Apollonian); Mileishia (Aowin); Aeyedi (Quitta); Iedi (Krepi).

A small date palm; grows on the sea-shore. Fruit edible. The terminal buds are cooked as a vegetable. A wine is made from the stem.

Liliaceæ.

Sansevieria.

Small tree, fibre-yielding.

Dracæna arborea.

40 feet in height.

Dracæna Mannii.

30 feet in height. Yields a light-coloured dye.

Dracæna surculosa.

Ulmaceæ.

Trema affinis.

A small tree.

Trema Africana.

Small tree of secondary forest.

Moraceæ.

Ficus sp. Shedua or Abonsandua (Twi); Mousandua or Okitsiwanfu (Fanti); Shedua (Ashanti); Adowa (Apollonian); Adowa and Dupain (Aowin); Kapro (Grunchi); Aiu (Krepi); Kingkanga (Hausa).

Some Ficus are tapped for rubber, others fruited. This species is a large, smooth-barked tree.

Ficus platyphylla.

Fruit edible, cf. Vogelii, and in great demand.

Ficus Vogelii.

Medium-sized tree. Latex extracted by tapping. A good shade tree.

[95]Ficus asperifolia. Yankran (Fanti).

Savannah forests. Called Sandpaper Tree, because the rough leaves are used to smooth planks. The ashes are used in making dyes.

Ficus elegans.

Ficus eriobotryoides.

Ficus Ottoniæfolia.

Ficus triangularis.

Musanga Smithii. Juma (Wassaw); Ajama (Fanti); Ajama (West), Ojamba (Ashanti); Eguni (Apollonian); Egeun (Aowin); Ajama (Krepi).

The Umbrella or Corkwood Tree; used as buoys for fishing-nets in Apollonia, and roof shingles in Ashanti.

Myrianthus arboreus. Niankuma (Fanti); Niankuma (Ashanti); Niankuma (Apollonian); Niangama (Aowin).

The fruit is eaten by the natives.

Myrianthus serratus.

Small tree with edible fruit.

Antiaris sp. Chenchen (Twi).

A large tree, the timber of which is liable to attacks by white ants; when seasoned, used for planks. The latex is one of the chief rubber adulterants.

Antiaris toxicaria. Ofu, Ohonton (Fanti).

Antiaris Africana.

Chlorophora excelsa. Odoum or Odum (Twi).

Timber very hard and durable; not easy to export, because it will not float in its green state. A large and valuable timber-tree found in the fringing forests, the driest parts.

Urticaceæ.

Urera.

A small tree, very common. Fibre very useful.

Olacaceæ.

Coula edulis.

Medium-sized tree with edible fruit.

Olax subscorpoidea.

Anonaceæ.

Anona Senegalensis.

The wild Custard Apple. Fruit edible.

Anona palustris.

Fruit edible. Both these grow in savannah forests. Roots used in making floats.

[96]Monodora brevipes.

Found in mixed deciduous forests.

Monodora tenuifolia. Dubiddi (Ashanti).

Hexalobus grandiflora.

A large, handsome tree.

Xylopia parviflora.

Xylopia striata.

Xylopias all small trees, except Æthiopica.

Xylopia Æthiopica.

A fairly large tree. Wood resists attacks of white ants. Used for native house-posts.

Myristicaceæ.

Pycnanthus Kombo. Ote (Twi). Oti or Etsu (Fanti); Oti (Ashanti); Tika (Apollonian); Attenli (Aowin); Oti (Accra).

The timber is useful for domestic purposes, roof shingles, etc. A fatty oil is obtained from the seeds. A medium-sized tree, straight-stemmed; wood not durable.

Lauraceæ.

Tylostemon Mannii.

A small tree.

Rosaceæ.

Parinarium sp. Affram (Twi).

Wood used by natives for building purposes.

Parinarium curatellæfolium.

Very common locally. The fruit edible.

Parinarium robustum.

Very little known about this tree.

Parinarium polyandrum.

In the savannah forests.

Parinarium mobola.

Small tree, but good timber. Fruit edible.

Chrysobalanus ellipticus. Ababele (Apollonian).

Found near fresh-water lagoon. The fruit of a blue colour, small and edible.

Connaraceæ.

Cnestis ferruginea.

Agelæa obliqua.

Leguminoseæ.

Piptadenia sp. Dahumah (Twi); Adadawa (Wassaw).

A large species.

[97]Piptadenia Africana. Dahomah (Twi); Odahuma (Wassaw).

Feathery foliage. Fruit a pod 1 foot long, 1 inch broad. A common forest tree; hard timber, good for railway sleepers.

Cylicodiscus Gabonensis? Denya (Twi); Odenya (Wassaw).

Very large tree of the evergreen forests.

Daniellia Ogea. Ahedua (Twi).

Gum Copal.

Pentaclethra macrophylla. Atawah or Althawah (Twi); Ekuana (Fanti).

The Oil-bean Tree. Fruit edible; vegetable oils and fats. Timber hard, suitable for turnery.

Detarium sp. Biunwe (Twi).

A gigantic forest tree. Timber good.

Detarium sp. Bowiwunua (Twi).

Much like the first. Timber good.

Detarium Senegalensis. Bowiwasi (Fanti).

Not so large as other species; doubtful if the timber would be durable on exposure to the atmosphere.

Parkia filicoidea.

Fruit edible. The Locust-bean Tree. Savannah forests.

Peltophorum sp. Memchin (Apollonian).

Bauhinia reticulata.

The bast fibres are very long and tough; used as ropes by the natives.

Paradaniella thurifera.

Balsam Copaiba Tree—wood oil. Timber of little value.

Tetrapleura Thonningii Prekese.

Feathery-leaved tree. Four-angled fruit (pod), edible. Used for medicinal purposes. Wood of medium hardness.

Xylia Evansii. Samanta (Twi); Samantawa (Fanti).

Pithecolobium altissimum. Augwameatee (Aowin).

A medium-sized tree, growing on river banks. A good shade tree.

Afrormosia laxiflora. Duakobin or Duabayi (general West Coast).

A large tree. Timber good, reddish colour; has been sold in Liverpool as satinwood. Canoes made from it.

Afzelia Africana. Opapao (Twi); Papao (Ashanti); Opapao (Akwapim).

A first-class, durable tree. Timber very valuable. The dominant tree of the savannah forests. Pod 4 to 7 inches long. Used for railway sleepers, furniture, and building purposes.

Afzelia fastigiata.

[98]Erythrophlœum Guineense.

A fine, spreading tree of the savannah forests. Wood hard and durable; used for building. The Sasswood or Ordeal Tree. The bark is poisonous; infusions of it are used by the natives for the ordeal test, especially on the Kroo coast. It regenerates freely from seed. Impervious to attacks of white ants.

Erythrophlœum micranthum. Potedon (Wassaw); Potedon (Fanti); Potedon (Ashanti); Potedon (Apollonian); Etsa (Krepi).

A reddish-brown coloured poison obtained from it.

Tamarindus Indica.

Wood very ornamental; fruit edible. The tree is found near the large rivers Volta and Affram.

Macrolobium Palisotii.

Macrolobium stipulaceum.

Macrolobium sp. Wulfram (Fanti); Ofarm (Ashanti); Ndukwun (Apollonian); Kotopapa (Krepi).

Common in marshy places.

Macrolobium limba.

Macrolobium reticulatum.

A medium-sized tree.

Cynometra Afzelii.

Cynometra all grow near streams.

Cynometra Mannii.

Cynometra sp.

Fringing forests, close to streams.

Pterocarpus esculentus.

Found in the fringing forests. Small tree, of little use.

Pterocarpus erinaceus.

The Senegal Rosewood Tree. The savannah forests.

Albizzia Brownei.

Fringing forests. Valuable wood, rich brown colour; hard and very durable. Height of tree about 100 to 120 feet, girth of 10 feet.

Albizzia Angolensis.

Albizzia Abruana.

Albizzia fastigiata.

Found on disused farms. The timber should be useful for local bridge-making, etc., also furniture. A gum of little value obtained from it.

Acacia Sieberiana.

Acacia catechu.

A common tree, very gregarious, in open grass country. Catechu procured from it. Similar to the species in Burma. The heartwood less well developed than Burmese variety. Sometimes called the Cutch Tree. Gum arabic.

[99]Baphia nitida.

A small tree, frequently found, except in the driest parts. The Camwood of commerce, though camwood is really the product of Pterocarpus.

Dialium Guineense.

Known as Sierra Leone Tamarind. Very local; fruit edible.

Berlinia acuminata.

Medium-sized tree. Gum obtained from it. Ornamental wood; does not work well.

Berlinia Auriculata.

A small tree.

Berlinia Heudelotii.

Medium height. Grows on river banks.

Cassia bicapsularis.

Cassia fistula.

Tree much like a laburnum, of medium size.

Cassia tora.

Cassia alata.

Flowers more brilliant than C. fistula. Found near villages.

Cassia lophira.

Cassia Sieberiana.

Cassia Occidentalis.

Milletia Thonningii.

Milletia Zechiana.

Bussea Occidentalis.

A small tree with bright-yellow flowers.

Newtonia insignis.

A tall tree with very smooth bark.

Calpocalyx.

A medium-sized tree of the evergreen forests.

Lonchocarpus sericeus.

Timber not much good; branches for hoe-handles.

Lonchocarpus cyanescens.

The young leaves for making blue dye.

Entada Soudanica.

A small, spiky tree; grows in dry, open country.

Entada Abyssinica.

Grows in savannah forests. Small tree.

Dichrostachys nutans.

Ormosia laxiflora.

A tree of about 30 feet in height, much gnarled and twisted.

Copaifera salikounda.

Cylicodiscus Gabunensis. Ajumkobi (Ashanti).

Sold as greenheart in the Liverpool market; 90 or 100 feet in height. Very much like Piptadenia Africana.

[100]Distemonanthus Benthamianus.

Ecastaphyllum Brownei.

A small white-flowered tree.

Erythrina Senegalensis.

A medium-sized tree, found chiefly in the dry parts. It has very ornamental scarlet flowers.

Linaceæ.

Hugonia acuminata.

Hugonia Planchoni.

Hugonia platysepala.

Hugonia octhocosum.

The Hugonia species are all small trees growing on the sea-shore.

Rutaceæ.

Zanthoxylum Senegalense. Ainyere (Apollonian).

Timber good quality. Bark used medicinally. A tree of the fringing forests—from a shrub on the sea-shore to a tree of 40 feet in height inland.

Simarubaceæ.

Hannoa Klaineana. Feutia (Aowin).

A medium-sized tree. Timber soft.

Irvingia sp. Okurii (Ashanti).

Yields a latex copious white when tapped, but turning red on exposure. Used as a rubber adulterant.

Irvingia Barterii.

One of the species that bears the Dika Nut or Wild Mango of commerce. Edible. Vegetable oils and fats. Tree of medium size.

Harrisonia Abyssinica.

A small tree.

Burseraceæ.

Boswellia Klaineana.

The Ehye or Incense Tree. Timber good.

Santiriopsis.

Timber good.

Meliaceæ.

Khaya anthotheca. Kwabohri (Twi); Akwabohori (Fanti); Kwaboho (Ashanti).

White Mahogany. Medium-sized tree; timber good.

[101]Khaya grandis. Appapayi or Wausauwah (Twi).

A mahogany growing on the shores of the Sacred Lake. Fringing forests.

Khaya Senegalensis.

This tree attains the height of from 50 to 60 feet and a girth of 6 feet. Grows best in open dry-zone grass country. Not easy to export, as it does not grow near waterways. A gum of little value obtained from it.

Khaya Punchii.

Found in fringing forests, rainy districts and swamps. Timber very useful in furniture-making.

Khaya Ivoriensis.

The principal mahogany-yielding tree (Mr. Thompson).

Khaya caudata.

Khaya sp. (Dubon or Dubini). Dubini (Twi); Dubini (Wassaw); Odupon or Dubini (Fanti); Odubin (Ashanti); Tiame Tiame (Apollonian); Tiama Tiama (Aowin).

The ordinary mahogany of the moist evergreen forests.

Khaya sp. Krubua (Twi); Okunmankra (Fanti).

Khaya sp. Afana or Apurro (Twi); Appapyayi (Fanti).

Two small unidentified trees from the mixed forests.

Lovoa Klaineana (Pebedum). Akwantanuro (Fanti); Kwantanura (Ashanti).

Shipped sometimes as African Walnut. A good timber-tree, closely resembling the teak in colour and structure. Very ornamental wood.

Pynærtia ealænsis. Kokotswi (Twi); Anchi (Fanti).

A good timber-tree, much used locally.

Guarea sp. Bossè (Twi).

A good timber-tree; appearance of cedar, and exported as such. Moist evergreen forests.

Pseudocedrela utilis. Effnobrodidwa (Twi); Effnokonkonti (Ashanti).

Cedar; the largest of the species. A fine timber-tree.

Pseudocedrela Kotschyii.

Savannah forests; attains a great height. Timber hard, of reddish colour, gnarled and twisted, so difficult to obtain timber of any size. Used for building by the natives. Roots, bark and leaves used medicinally (rheumatism).

Pseudocedrela sp. Tiama Tiama (Apollonian).

A new species of the cedars.

Pseudocedrela cylindrica. Peukwa (Twi); Punkwa (Wassaw); Tiama Tiama (Apollonian).

This cedar produces excellent timber.

[102]Carapa Guianensis. Osuabise (Akwapim); Asokoru (Apollonian); Asoroa (Aowin).

A large tree of the fringing forests, growing on the banks of the streams; sometimes shipped as mahogany. Vegetable oils and fats obtained from it.

Entandrophragma cylindricum.

Entandrophragma ferrugineum.

Entandrophragma macrophylla.

Entandrophragma Septentrionale.

Entandrophragma utilis.

Found near Mansu and Supom. The timber of the Entandrophragma species is exported under the name of cedar. The cylindricum attains a height of 100 feet. Wood gummy, and unsuitable for veneers. Sometimes called “unscented mahogany.” The utilis under the name of “sapele scented wood.”

Trichilia Heudelottii.

A small tree of little value.

Trichilia rubescens.

Attains a height of 30 feet.

Trichilia Prieuriana.

Medium-sized tree with flaky bark and much-curled branches. Wood of red colour, not unlike cedar, but close-grained and hard, and has a tendency to twist when sawn.

Malpigheaceæ.

Heteropterys Africana.

Small tree; not very well known.

Euphorbiaceæ.

Ricinodendron Africanus. Assomah (Twi); Asoma (Fanti); Owama (Ashanti).

In fringing forests on the banks of streams. Vegetable oils and fats obtained from this tree. The wood is soft, but burns well; used by natives as fuel.

Bridelia micrantha.

Small tree of the dry zone. A deep reddish-brown dye obtained from this tree. It is made a fast colour by the admixture of old iron, such as old kerosene tins, which seems an important part of the fixing.

Macaranga Barterii.

Macaranga heterophylla.

Macaranga monandra.

Macaranga Rowlandii.

These four Macaranga species are all small, little-known trees. The Monandra species is a small cauliflorous tree.

[103]Mæsobotrya cauliflora.

A small tree; has conspicuous red fruit.

Mæsobotrya sparsiflora.

A small, little-known tree.

Megabaria Trillesii. Chuiansa (Apollonian).

Small tree bearing poisonous fruit.

Microdesmis puberula. Aforwa (Wassaw); Offenma (Ashanti); Chuiansa (Apollonian).

A small tree. Wood very useful in the making of agricultural instruments, also chew-sticks.

Uapaca Heudelottii.

A large tree; very common on river banks.

Hasskarlia didymostemon.

A small tree; wood of little worth.

Hymenocardia acida.

Hymenocardia Chevalieri.

The Hymenocardia are both small trees of the savannah forests.

Excœcaria.

Small tree of the savannah forests.

Phyllanthus reticulatus.

Small tree of the savannah forests.

Bridelia ferruginea.

An antidote against poisons.

Bridelia atroviridis.

Not well known. About 10 feet in height. A small tree of the savannah forests.

Discoglypremna caloneura.

A small tree of the savannah forests.

Elæophorbia drupifera. Kamhan (Fanti); Dudu (Apollonian); Ajurlo (Krepi).

A small tree growing near the sea.

Cleidion Gabunicum.

A small tree. Chew-sticks obtained from it.

Antidesma venosum.

Antidesma laciniatum.

Antidesma anbryanthum.

A white latex obtained from it.

Anacardiaceæ.

Spondias lutea. Atwaba (Fanti); Atawa (Ashanti); Twani (Apollonian); Tongoma (Aowin); Akukan (Quitta); Akukan (Krepi).

Found in the fringing forests. A very fine tree. Fruit edible, called Hog-plum—like yellow plums in appearance; a sharp, acid taste, not unpleasant.

[104]Odina sp.

A small, uncommon tree.

Pseudospondias microcarpa.

A fair-sized tree, not unlike the Spondias lutea.

Trichoscypha.

A small tree, little known.

Celastraceæ.

Salacia debilis.

A tall shrub, 20 feet in height.

Icacinaceæ.

Apodytes Beninensis.

A small tree, little known.

Sapindaceæ.

Blighia sapida. Takwadua (Twi); Takwadua (Wassaw).

Often planted near villages. A useful shade tree, and part of the fruit edible, called Akee. In the forest a good-sized, straight tree. Timber excellent; hard, good grain, and easily worked.

Paullinia pinnata.

A small tree or shrub.

Phialodiscus unijugata.

Small tree. Wood of little account.

Lecaniodiscus.

Small tree. Wood of little account.

Eriocœlum.

A river-side tree.

Aphania.

Small tree, little known.

Deinbollia insignis.

Small tree, little known.

Melianthaceæ.

Bersama Chippii.

A small ornamental tree with sweet-scented flowers.

Rhamnaceæ.

Zizyphus Spina-Christi.

A small tree with edible fruit. Wood very useful in cabinet-work.

Lasiodiscus.

A small, little-known tree.

Zizyphus mucronata.

A small tree of the savannah forests.

[105]Vitaceæ.

Leea.

A small tree of the savannah forests. Fruit edible.

Tiliaceæ.

Grewia carpinifolia.

Glyphæa Grewioides.

Triumfetta sp.

Three small fibre-yielding trees. The Grewia has brilliant yellow flowers.

Malvaceæ.

Hibiscus tiliaceus.

A yellow-flowered tree. Wood durable under water.

Thespesia populnea. Fref (Fanti); Eijan (Apollonian).

A small tree growing on sea-shore.

Bombacaceæ.

Bombax Buonopozense. Akata (Twi); Akata (Denkira); Ekuba (Apollonian); Eku (Aowin); Kafro (Grunchi); Agutesi (Krepi); Akronkron (Accra).

The Silk Cotton Tree. Red-flowered. A tall tree with horizontal branches with spiny protuberances. Grows in the mixed forests. It yields a kapok (fibre) similar to the Eriodendrons.

Bombax brevicuspe. Kuntunkun (Twi); Kuntunkuni (Denkira).

A new species of cotton-tree. Timber used for canoes, bark for dye, and cotton for native pillows.

Bombax sp. Eku (Twi); Nyi-nu-kobin (general West Coast); Akata (Denkira); Ekuba (Apollonian); Ekui (Aowin); Kafro (Grunchi); Agutesi (Krepi); Akronkron (Accra).

This species is confined to the rain forests of the maritime zone.

Adansonia digitata.

The Baobab Tree. The pulp of the fruit is eaten by the natives; flavour acid. The seeds are washed, pounded and steeped in water for ten days. The North-west Ashanti natives use it to flavour soup. This tree is very rich in wood fibre, which realises from £9 to £10 per ton, and is of great commercial value. A gouty-looking tree, and grows in open country, rocky soil.

Eriodendron anfractuosum. Ongina (Twi); Enyena (Wassaw); Onyina or Enyena (Fanti); Enyena (Ashanti); Enyenga (Apollonian); Enyo (Aowin); Gung (Grunchi); Ofwho (Quitta); Ofwho (Krepi).

The white-flowered silk cotton-tree of the fringing forests,[106] one of the largest trees of West Africa. The wood is very light, and should be useful in making light wood articles, such as boxes and toys, but there is no market for it at present. The fibre is good, and the wood should also make pulp in paper-making; but there is no market, owing to the expense involved in collecting it.

Sterculiaceæ.

Heritiera utilis. Awabima (Twi); Pteryyota Wawampe’e (Ashanti); N’yankon, Yankom or Yankun (general West Coast).

Good timber-tree, medium-sized.

Sterculia cordifolia. Wawapupuo (Twi); Duamenyi (Fanti).

Tall tree; height, 60 to 100 feet. The wood of little value, as it is very soft. Found in the fringing and intermediate forests.

Sterculia tomentosa.

Height, 40 to 50 feet. Intermediate and fringing forests. The fruit grows in clusters, kidney shaped, with a dense, reddish tomentum.

Sterculia Barterii.

Flowers when the tree is leafless—appears covered with red flame. The wood is soft and of little value; it should make a good paper-pulp. The inner bark used to make rope.

Sterculia tragacantha.

A medium-sized tree. Wood of little worth.

Triplochiton Johnsonii. Wawa or Wawwaw (Twi); Owawa (Wassaw).

A good timber-tree. Bark used locally for roofing. Strong, works well and has satiny sheen. When used in exposed places it is subject to dry-rot. Tall, straight-growing tree. Should be useful for inside building.

Cola Afzelia.

Fringing forests. Monkey Cola. Fruit bright-red in colour, something like Kola. Tree grows to a height of 40 or 50 feet.

Cola laurifolia.

A very small species.

Cola acuminata. Bessi (Ashanti); Esseri (Apollonian); Ewasi (Aowin); Gwe (Grunchi); Evi (Quitta); Guru (Hausa).

The Kola Nut of commerce is obtained from this tree.

Cola caricifolia.

Mansonia altissima.

Timber-tree; useful for domestic purposes.

Cola cordifolia.

Found in the savannah forests.

Cola sublobata.

[107]Cola vera.

The Hausa, supposed to be the best.

Cola verticulata.

Tree little known and of little value.

Scytopetalaceæ.

Scytopetalum Tarquense.

A small tree of the evergreen forests, bearing white flowers.

Ochnaceæ.

Lophira procera.

Lophira is also called the Kaku or Red Ironwood Tree; the most durable timber of the West Coast. Very valuable as fuel; it has highly calorific properties. It grows solely in the maritime zone, in swampy land. It is of great weight, and will not float. Very useful for piles in wharves, etc.

Lophira alata.

A very fine, tall tree, growing from 20 to 50 feet. The bark is dark and rough; timber very hard and durable. The seeds are rich in oils. The tree is sometimes mistaken for the Shea Butter Tree. Common in open grass country.

Guttiferæ.

Pentadesma butyraceæ. Pija (Wassaw); Pija (Fanti); Ehukei (Apollonian); Asuaindokun (Aowin); Bromabina (Axim).

Butter or Tallow Tree. An edible fat is obtained from the seeds. Also used in soap-making. A thick yellow juice exudes from the tree when cut. A fine tree.

Allanblackia floribunda. Suein (Apollonian); Anane (Axim).

Small tree, not well known.

Garcinia Guineensis. Ablari (Fanti).

A purgative is made from a decoction of the leaves.

Haronga Madagascariensis. Ngodua (Fanti); Kursua (Apollonian).

A yellow dye is obtained from the bark. The leaves are used as a medicine for dysentery. There is a red watery exudation from the bark.

Psorospermum.

A large shrub, sometimes may be called a tree, in the savannah forests.

Cochlospermaceæ.

Cochlospermum tinctorium.

A large shrub of the savannah forests. The bark is used in rope-making. A yellow dye is obtained from the roots.

Lindackeria dentata.

A medium-sized tree.

[108]Violaceæ.

Alsodeia. Notonima (Ashanti).

A shrubbery tree of little value.

Smeathmannia pubescens.

A shrubby tree with conspicuous white flowers.

Flacourtiaceæ.

Oncoba echinata.

A small tree with white cauline flowers.

Oncoba Gilgiana.

A large shrub.

Oncoba dentata.

A small tree.

Rawsonia spinosa.

A medium-sized tree.

Smeathmannia pubescens.

A shrubby tree with conspicuous white flowers.

Lecythidaceæ.

Napoleona Vogelii.

A small tree, grows by river banks. The wood is easily worked. Fruit edible.

Rhizophoraceæ.

Anopyxis ealænsis. Kokoti (Wassaw); Anchi or Kokoti (Fanti); Abari (Apollonian).

Good timber-tree, much used for fuel.

Combretaceæ.

Combretum Afzelia.

Found near rivers.

Laguncularia racemosa.

White Mangrove. Grows in swamps.

Anogeissus leiocarpus.

A tall tree, from 30 to 50 feet in height. The roots are used as chew-sticks. The heartwood very durable, brown or blackish-brown. The grey ash of sap and heart woods used as a mordant. Tannin and gum obtained from this tree.

Combretum Zenkerii.

A large, shrubby tree.

Combretum sp. Esseah or Essia (general West Coast).

The “Stinkwood” Tree.

Terminalia sp. Emril, or Emil or Emiri (general West Coast).

The wood is used locally for shingles. In intermediate forests. Branches in tiers or whorls. A huge tree, bark black.

[109]Terminalia superba. Offram (Twi); Offram (Fanti).

Found in the fringing forests, of great height and extremely straight. Branches in whorls, barely noticeable in the full-grown tree. Timber medium strength and hardness, light coloured, with discoloured patches. Works up very well, but of no great value for export.

Terminalia macroptera.

Found in the savannah forests.

Terminalia Togoensis.

A small tree of dry zone, of no particular value.

Pteleopsis.

A large tree. Timber little used.

Strephonema Apoloniensis.

A small tree, species little known.

Myrtaceæ.

Eugenia Guineensis.

A large tree. Work used for many purposes. Fruit edible and medicinal.

Eugenia Owariensis.

Grows in the dry zone. A spreading tree.

Psidium Guajava. Aduaba (Apollonian).

The Guava Tree. Fruit edible.

Sapotaceæ.

Omphalocarpum sp. Assoro (Twi); Ketibubaka (Aowin).

A workable wood obtained from it, also guttapercha. The seeds worn as ornaments at their feasts by Apollonians.

Mimusops multinervis.

Grows to the height of 60 or 80 feet, with a corresponding girth. Timber hard and durable, red in colour, with a fine grain. Its weight and hardness are against its ordinary use, but it is a fine wood for sleepers.

Butyrospermum Parkii. N’ku (Fanti); N’ku (Akwapim); Iakuni (Quitta); Sakuni (Krepi).

Shea Butter Tree. One of the most valuable trees, found very frequently. Bark thick, rough, and often gnarled and twisted. Flowers creamy-white, leaves straplike. The fruit is something like a yellow plum, ripe in May. It is very similar in appearance to the Lophira alata, but the Shea butter tree exudes a white latex when cut; the Lophira does not. Timber good, but as the tree is usually only from 20 to 30 feet in height (occasionally 50 feet), it is not large enough for most purposes. The vegetable oil or butter has an agreeable sweetish taste, much used in cooking.

[110]Mimusops sp. Opapea (Twi); Opepeli (Fanti).

Vegetable oils from all the Mimusops species.

Mimusops Djave. Baku (Twi); Baku (Fanti); Baku (Ashanti); Makure (Apollonian); Makwe (Aowin); Abaku (Accra).

Vegetable oils and fats obtained from M. Djave. A very good timber-tree.

Vincentella impressa.

A new species. A large tree, found growing on the river banks.

Chrysophyllum albidum.

Edible fruit. Not so well known as Chrysophyllum Africanum.

Chrysophyllum Africanum.

The Star-apple Tree, often cultivated for its fruit, and also as a shade tree.

Ebenaceæ.

Diospyros mespiliformis.

A tree of the fringing forests—the Ebony Tree. Very abundant. Of medium size, 50 to 60 feet in height, 6 to 8 in girth. The heartwood is usually streaked with brown. The larger trees are generally hollow.

Diospyros Mombuttensis.

Diospyros xanthochlamys.

Oleaceæ.

Schrebera Golungensis.

Found in the fringing forests. Very uncommon. A large tree; timber very good.

Loganiaceæ.

Strychnos emarginata and others.

Anthocleista sp.

A medium-sized tree, near fresh-water swamps. Large white flowers. Wood of no special value.

Anthocleista magnifica. Honum (Twi).

A small tree with very large leaves.

Anthocleista nobilis. Otendui (Fanti); Tendeba (Apollonian); Tendeba (Aowin).

A small tree, of little value.

Apocynaceæ.

Landolphia bracteata.

A vine-like tree. Does not yield rubber.

Landolphia ferruginea.

Like the above.

[111]Landolphia Owariensis. Pau (Twi); Kwantama (Wassaw); Opaina (Fanti); Jama (Ashanti); Kwantama (general West Coast); Amale (Apollonian); Faia (Aowin); Danko (Hausa); Jahdanko (Accra).

Two kinds of rubber obtained: “root-rubber,” after crushing the bark and stems and washing out the rubber, or “white-ball,” by tapping and scoring, and coagulating the latex as it exudes by lime-juice rubbed on the bark. It is valued at 1s. 9d. to 2s. a pound, the root-rubber at 1s. 6d. a pound.

Landolphia florida.

A quantity of milky juice which becomes a pasty mass, but has no market value.

Landolphia Droogmansiana.

Good rubber obtained when growing in dry ground, worthless when in swampy ground.

Landolphia Senegalensis.

Landolphia Thompsonii.

Widely spread in the fringing forests; does not yield good rubber, only a pasty mass from the latex.

Landolphia scandens.

No yield of rubber.

Landolphia Klainei.

Inferior rubber.

Carpodinus hirsuta. Alibida (Hausa).

Very robust and hairy (hence its name). Found in mixed forest belts. It yields a flake or paste rubber, extracted by tapping and coagulated by boiling.

Clitandra elastica. Beckindanko (Hausa).

Yields a good rubber, sold at 1s. 3d. or 1s. 6d. a pound.

Funtumia elastica. Fruntum (Ashanti); Efunmundon (Apollonian); Efunmundon (Aowin); Puni (Krepi).

The yield of this rubber-tree is called the Lagos or Silk rubber. Found in the evergreen rain forests. Very little inferior to Para rubber. The amount procured from F. elastica is less than Para rubber.

Funtumia Africana.

Spurious rubber-tree; though in appearance very much like F. elastica, the leaves are coarser and pods longer. The latex, when coagulated, forms a sticky mass like birdlime, sometimes used for adulterating other latices.

Alstonia Congensis. Niamidua (Twi); Sindra (Ashanti); Nimeribaka (Apollonian).

Wood rather soft; only fit for inside building or toy-making. It grows best in the swamp country. A fairly large tree, slightly[112] buttressed with smooth bark. The natives mix the latex with rubber.

Rauwolfia Cumminsii.

Rauwolfia vomitoria.

A small tree, not over 20 feet in height.

Polyadoa umbellata.

Tree of 30 feet in height, growing in the fringing forests near rivers.

Holarrhena Wulfsbergii.

Grows in the fringing forests. A tree with drooping branches. Flowers white and fragrant. The wood is very soft, of little value.

Voacanga Africana.

A small tree, widely distributed. It has a milky latex, which is used in adulterating rubber.

Asclepiadaceæ.

Kanahia consimilis.

A shrubby tree growing near water.

Convolvulaceæ.

Prevostea Africana.

A small tree, little known.

Prevostea Heudelotii.

Small tree; wood of no value.

Borraginaceæ.

Cordia Irvingii.

Found in the rain forests of the Okwawu hill system. Timber used locally for shingles. A spreading tree, reaching to about 60 feet in height.

Ehretia cymosa.

A small tree. Wood used for various purposes. Fruit edible and medicinal.

Verbenaceæ.

Lantana camara.

Shrubby tree.

Lippia adoensis.

Shrubby tree.

Vitex megaphylla.

Both Vitex species grow in the savannah forests.

Vitex cuneata.

A common tree about 30 feet in height. Of no known value.

[113]Avicennia Africana.

One of the tallest trees in the mangrove association, yielding a workable wood, medicine and tannin.

Clerodendron splendens.

A shrubby tree.

Bignoniaceæ.

Spathodea campanulata. Osisiru (Ashanti).

A medium-sized tree, found in the fringing forests. Provides a useful timber, medicine, and from the seeds an article of food. Large yellow trumpet-shaped flowers.

Dolichandrone lutea.

A tree of about 30 feet in height.

Kigelia pinnata.

The fruit has a thick rind and is edible. Timber and drugs obtained from it. Sometimes called Sausage Tree, from the sausage-shaped fruits which hang down a long stalk. A small tree.

Newbouldia lævis. Sasanemasa (Ashanti).

An evergreen tree, from 30 to 40 feet in height. Pink trumpet-shaped flowers. The natives use it as a boundary tree.

Acanthaceæ.

Acantha montana.

A shrubby tree having medicinal properties.

Rubiaceæ.

Mitragyne macrophylla. Baya (Twi); Yar-yar, or Ya-ya (general West Coast); Baya (Aowin).

A large tree growing in the fresh-water swamps. Timber good.

Sarcocephalus esculentus. Kusia (Twi); Ekusawa (Fanti); Kishia (general West Coast); Baya (Aowin).

Good timber, used locally. Wood of a golden yellow colour, very ornamental, hard and durable, easily worked.

Sarcocephalus Russegeri. Osupawa (Fanti).

The Russegeri grows in the savannah forests.

Gardenia tenuifolia.

Fruit edible. A bushy, ornamental tree.

Urophyllum hirtellum.

A shrubby tree. Dyes obtained from it.

Randia genipæflora.

A small tree having fine trumpet-shaped flowers.

[114]Randia maculata.

A bushy tree, very ornamental when in flower.

Oxyanthus tubiflorus.

A very ornamental shrub or small tree. Timber, dyes and medicine obtained from it.

Compositæ.

Vernonia conferta.

A large-leaved, small tree. The timber of one variety fairly good.

Flintwood, not identified. Okisibisi (Fanti).

Good timber, used for mine-props.

[115]APPENDIX

GOLD COAST—FOREST EXPORTS

[116]CHAPTER VII

TOGO

Introduction.

During the latter part of 1911 I had the opportunity of visiting Togo. Since August 1914 it has been in the occupation of British and French troops, administered as a co-dominion.

Forest Station work has been the main work of the Forest Department since the inception, both under the District Officer and subsequently under the trained officer. There is only 1 per cent. of forests in the whole country.

Lome, the capital of Togo, formed my starting-point, and there His Excellency the Governor and the Secretary of the Colony advised me as to the best route and supplied me with many interesting details as to the system of taxation, etc.

Taxation.—In Lome every man above sixteen years of age has the choice of paying 6s. per year or working twelve days for the Government. On the coast it is found that the natives prefer to pay the tax, but inland the twelve days’ work is usually given. This Government work consists of plantation and road making, bridge-building, erecting rest-houses, and many other kinds of public work.

The subject may be divided into three sections:

(1) The Forests between or at the Stations.

(2) The Forest Department Plantations.

(3) District Plantations.

I. The Forests between or at the Stations.

Near Lome the ground is very sparsely covered with thorny shrubs and occasional Baobabs, Adansonia digitata, but on nearing the valley of the Schio the soil improves and small plantations of sugar-cane appear. Though no attempt has been made here to develop this industry, the natives of Tagblekovke and other places sell large quantities of the cane. Oil palms are seen on both sides of the line, chiefly, however, on the river banks, owing to the annual grass fires. Scattered silk cotton-trees also occur along the river banks, otherwise only the normal dry-zone vegetation is found.

The rainfall, however, is quite sufficient for the growth of a deciduous forest. The remains of fringing forests on the banks of the Rivers[117] Schio, Lili and Haho consist of Pterocarpus erinaceus, Erythrophlœum Guineense, Terminalia Togoensis and a few specimens of Afzelia or Cynometra.

I.

Fig. 17.—One-year-old Oil Palms amongst seven- to ten-year-old Trees, 1911.

II.

Fig. 18.—Two-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode.

III.

Fig. 19.—Three-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode.

IV.

Fig. 20.—Four-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode.

To face p. 116.

Passing on to the Haho-Baloë district, plantations occur at the junction of these rivers in an open plain of scanty dry-zone forest. A fringing mixed forest of the normal type, varying from 200 to 500 yards in width, was found on the banks of each river, and as it formed a complete fire protection, was left untouched. In the open forest the most common trees are the Pseudocedrelas, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Butyrospermum Parkii and Terminalia.

The rainfall varies at this spot from 28 to 39 inches annually. The higher rainfall is probably the true average, if considered in conjunction with the natural vegetation. A great change in the vegetation was noticeable between Nuatjä and Atakpame; the typical dry-zone trees, such as Pterocarpus erinaceus, Shea Butter, Lophira and others, were soon left behind, and on nearing the hilly country of Atakpame a more flourishing condition was evident. Oil palms were growing in profusion both on the banks of the rivers and also on the sides. Large cotton-trees, Triplochiton Nigericum, Iroko, Chlorophora excelsa, Sterculia cordifolia and other trees of this kind were seen. The rainfall is much higher here, averaging from 58 inches, spread over the months of April, May, June, July, August and September, and a little in October. This rises to 58 inches, falls to 52, 105 miles to the north of Atakpame, in the Sokode District. This is spread over the usual rainy season of West Africa; more rain, however, falls in September than in the northern part of Southern Nigeria during the same month. After leaving the hills of Atakpame behind, we took the road to Sokode, and between the Rivers Tagbadja and Au the following dry-zone trees were most prevalent: Lophira alata, Shea Butter, Terminalia Togoensis and Pterocarpus erinaceus. As we advanced the Shea Butter Tree ceased, but more Terminalia were seen; Pterocarpus in groups and Pseudocedrela Kotschyi became very prevalent. Fringing forests were seen in the level country which followed along the banks of the Ana River.

On the third day’s march I found a large specimen of Khaya Senegalensis and several smaller ones at a place just above the eighth parallel of latitude, below which the Khaya Senegalensis is rarely found. Beyond this were Paradaniella thurifera, Borassus flabelliformis, Fan Palm, Afzelia Africana and Shea Butter, and less of the species already mentioned.

These were succeeded by small pure forests of Berlinia Kerstingii, Afzelia, Ormosia laxiflora, Bauhinia reticulata, Erythrina Senegalensis, Parinarium polyandrum and Parkia Africana, syn. filicoidea. Nearing Blita rest-house, bamboos appeared, Agave rigida, and also a Ceara-rubber plantation.

[118]It was interesting to find on inquiry that this plantation was the result of 1,000,000 Ceara seeds distributed to the natives in 1907. The vegetation on the banks of the rivers and streams consisted mostly of deciduous forest, with typical dry-zone trees at the edges. In addition, Pentadesma Kerstingii and Dalbergia melanoxylon were seen.

The last-named species has, according to German botanists, been confused with Diospyros mespiliformis, so far as the timber is concerned. The last two miles before reaching Sokode were covered with extensive plantations.

Dry-zone Trees.—Between Sokode and Bassari, a distance of 37 miles, are the Malfakassa Mountains, of which the summits are mostly bare, owing to the annual grass fires, but a dense growth of Berlinia Kerstingii, Terminalia and Afzelia Africana grow in the moister valleys.

On the more open ground the usual dry-zone trees were seen, and the Khaya Senegalensis on the banks of each of the four rivers.

The rainfall is the same as that of Sokode, about 52 inches, although the atmosphere is moister, which is partly due to the higher altitude.

The somewhat cooler temperature of the air causes heavy dews, and these also, in their turn, increase the moisture of the air. The differences are thus very marked between Sokode and Bassari as to the atmospheric moisture, and also as to the variation in the growth of the trees at the two stations.

After a short visit of two days I left Bassari for Jendi, 70 miles to the north-west. One range of hills on the way is noticeable for the pure formation of iron ore which “crops out” and causes the tree-growth to be small.

The vegetation becomes very sparse towards the valley of the Oti, 30 miles distant from Bassari, and this is owing to a great change in the climatic conditions as compared with Bassari, as well as the annual grass fires. The sole representatives of the dry-zone vegetation, which, near Bassari, had originally consisted of Khaya Senegalensis, Afzelia and Shea Butter trees, are the Baobabs, Adansonia digitata.

The rainfall is only 43 inches per year. The poor vegetation found near Jendi gradually gives way, between that station and Kete-Kratschi, to more typical dry-zone trees, such as Shea Butter, Lophira, Afzelia and Berlinia Kerstingii.

Oil palms were found on the third day growing near the banks of the streams, and more Afzelia in the open country. Mimusops multinervis and Diospyros were found near the River Volta, at the edge of a wide belt of evergreen forest.

The dry season is much prolonged in most years. On the average the rainfall is 46·8 inches. At the next station on the tour, Pfandu,[119] the rainfall rises to 55 inches per year. Near the summit of the station hill the soil is poor, but excellent on the lower slopes.

The climatic conditions of Pfandu, a substation to Misahöhe, are unfavourable, and labour is less obtainable. The road between these two stations passes through very poor dry-zone forest, but on entering the Misahöhe mountainous region we came upon a fine evergreen forest. The most common trees noticed were Khaya Klainii, Mahogany, Iroko and Terminalia superba, the shingle-wood tree, also Triplochiton, Sterculia cordifolia, Carapa procera, Piptadenia Africana, Pentaclethra macrophylla, Detarium Guineensis, Brachystegia spicæformis, Berlinia acuminata, Afrormosia laxiflora, Satinwood, Alstonia Congensis, Ricinodendron Africanum and Eriodendron Nigericum. The mahoganies of this district were remarkably fine trees, mostly over 10 feet in girth.

A written permit, costing 3s. per tree, has to be obtained for cutting trees, and also permission from the Commissioner, before forest land may be cleared.

The high rainfall of Misahöhe, which is 62 inches per year, produces a very moist atmosphere.

After a visit of three days to the Misahöhe Station, I left for Palime, the terminus of the Lome Railway. On the way down the mountain, the contrast between the eastern and western slopes was very noticeable, a deciduous forest covering the eastern slope and an evergreen forest the western. For the first 10 miles from Palime on the way to Lome, mahoganies, oil palms and other trees abounded, but gradually gave way to the same drier type of forest as that seen on the Nuatjä railway-line.

This condition of vegetation continued until Lome was reached, a distance of 75 miles.

II. The Forest Department Plantations.

During 1907 there was a Forestry Conference in Berlin with regard to the afforestation of the Colony of Togo (which is wooded only to the extent of 1 per cent.), with the result that the area of Haho-Baloë was first chosen, and the plantation started at the junction of the rivers.

A fringing mixed forest on each bank of the river was left untouched, as they formed a fire protection for the plantation. Pseudocedrelas, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Butyrospermum Parkii and Terminalia were the most common trees found in the open forest between the rivers.

The altitude of this area above sea-level is about 480 feet. It slopes slightly from north to south and is triangular in shape.

Seedlings were first tried, but did not survive the first season,[120] and since that time seeds have been sown, and this proved a great success. Eight species of trees have been used to form these plantations:

• (1) Teak, Tectona grandis.
• (2) Afzelia Africana, also called Rhodesia Mahogany or Apa.
• (3) Sasswood, Erythrophlœum Guineense.
• (4) African Mahogany, Khaya Senegalensis.
• (5) Khaya Klainii, Mahogany.
• (6) Iroko, Chlorophora excelsa.
• (7) Kapok, Ceiba pentandra.
• (8) Anogeissus Leiocarpus, Chew-stick Tree.

One-sixth of the total area, however, has been planted with teak; in all, 491,300 seedlings. The Erythrophlœum seedlings are most numerous, the wood of this species being hard, durable and termite resisting. It has been used with great success for piles and trestles in bridge-building.

Afzelia and the two mahoganies will be valuable and useful timbers, especially the mahoganies, as they are indigenous to the country, and there is not the element of speculation attending introduced trees.

In addition to the eight chief species named above, a few specimens of Detarium Guineense (the Dita fruit of Sierra Leone) and Cynometra were planted, but their growth is slow. A mixed crop, consisting of Parkia filicoidea, the Locust Tree, Prosopis oblonga, Anogeissus leiocarpus and Detarium Guineense (Senegalense), has also been planted.

The mixture is a good one, but the growth has been slow. The general appearance of the area where teak has been planted, in spite of the fact that the bush was left standing, is that of a teak plantation, for the teak has outgrown all the indigenous trees and formed a complete thicket.

Owing to the lack of drainage in the soil, as well as attacks of the borer, the Khaya Senegalensis has grown slowly. Slow growth is noticed also in the Apa, Afzelia Africana, but that seems to be typical of the tree.

During the first year the cost of planting (including building and labour) worked out at £4 4s. an acre, but by the third year this amount was reduced to £1 2s. The valuation of the whole plantation is at least £10,000.

The second Forest Department’s afforestation area is Mo-Kamaa, which is being planted in a similar manner and with similar planting methods to the area situated near the Haho-Baloë. Tax labour has been used to a large extent in these plantations. The situation is particularly suitable for planting operations, owing to its being protected[121] on two sides by the rivers from the annually recurring fires of this locality. The altitude is about 500 feet above sea-level.

As in the case of Haho, nurseries were made for oil palms only, various species being sown in lines, between which the forest growth was left standing, so as to form shade for the seedlings. Approximately 600,000 seedlings have survived, about 400,000 Khayas and 200,000 teak.

Dry-zone mahogany, Khaya Senegalensis, and teak have been planted in addition to the oil palm. The Khaya, even up to 12 feet in girth, is found all over the locality, and near the bank of the Kamaa a few oil palms.

The teak has grown much faster than the Khaya, the average height of the former being 6 feet and that of the latter only 2 feet. The teak seedlings are beginning to outstrip the indigenous trees in the locality.

The mixture of these two trees, as far as can be judged, has been a great success. For, by the persistent foliage of the Khaya falling to the ground at a different period to that of the teak, the necessary protection to the soil, when the teak-trees are leafless, is thus given, and the Khaya (Mahogany) benefits by being drawn up by the quickly growing teak, and in both cases there is less tendency to form strong side branches.

With the advent of the proposed railway, the timber in this locality will be of great value; but even without this advantage the present value is at least £1,000.

The planting scheme contemplated is enormous, and includes an area of 96,000 acres. An actual start has been made with 295 acres.

It is an interesting fact that the mixed plantations in the afforestation areas have nearly all been made by the Forest Department, and the pure plantations by the Commissioners at the District Stations.

Approximately 300 acres are composed of mixed plantations and 256 of pure plantations.

The following mixed plantations are found in the Haho-Baloë afforestation area:

• (1) Sasswood and Teak.
• (2) Sasswood, Teak and Mahogany, Khaya senegalensis.
• (3) Sasswood, Teak and Khaya Klainii.
• (4) Sasswood, Afzelia and Cynometra Afzelia.
• (5) Sasswood and Afzelia Africana.
• (6) Sasswood, Khaya Senegalensis and Afzelia Africana.
• (7) Sasswood and Khaya Klainii.

The most profitable mixture of all these is the teak, Khaya Klainii and Sasswood, though all have something in their favour.

These mixed forests need much attention, as one species frequently[122] outgrows another, one suppressing the other, and the mixture consequently no longer existing. More European supervision is required to remove suppressed or crooked trees.

III. District Plantations.

Avenues of trees suitable for street-planting have been largely made in Lome. The Terminalia catappa (almond-tree) is one of the most useful trees for this purpose; at least 12 feet of the stems are quite free from branches, and thus the trees cannot harbour many insects.

The coconut, though made use of for this purpose, is not so suitable, as it lacks height-growth; the Dracæna also, which does not improve the roadside, and a species of Ficus, probably platyphylla, which loses its foliage in the dry season, are neither of them a success. Near the Government House a large number of Casuarina equisitifolia have been planted; these have flourished well, as they can stand the ocean wind blowing almost continuously at Lome.

In the Experimental Gardens, which are situated 80 feet above sea-level, there are many interesting varieties.

The soil, a mixture of very poor sand with a great deal of iron, is not favourable to height-growth of the teak (Tectona grandis); the seeds, though in great quantities, are small and ill-developed. The mahogany, too, showed poor height and girth growth, the locality was evidently not suitable for it. Other trees that did not seem to thrive were Cedrela odorata, the Cigar-box Cedar Tree, Pithecolobium dulcis, Funtumia elastica, Bread-fruit, Artocarpus incisa, Ficus Vogelii, Borassus flabellifer, Bixa orellana, Acacia catechu, Casuarina equisitifolia, Manihot Glaziovii and Manihot dichotoma; but the oil palms, Elæis Guineensis, and Ficus elastica were doing exceeding well and were of a healthy green colour. Bamboos and the usual tropical fruits had also been planted. The Kapok tree (Ceiba pentandra according to German botanists, and Eriodendron Nigericum according to Kew botanists), which has been planted too far apart, has made very little growth.

Under the guidance of the Director I visited the Agricultural School at Nuatja, 50 miles from Lome. Experimental work of all kinds was carried on here. In the nurseries were to be found Kapok, Ceiba pentandra, cotton and oil palms. In a machinery shed were a cotton gin and press, and husking machines for other seed. Lectures are given early in the year, and as the season advances practical work takes their place.

A great drawback to the extension of the Atakpame District plantations (95 miles from Lome) is the shortness of labour, as the natives pay their tax instead of working.

[123]The main plantations have been made on the east side of the station, on a slope facing south. Teak has been very largely planted here, no less than 25,400 seedlings since 1901, when the work was started. Others are Treculia Africana, African Bread-fruit, Sasswood, Mimusops multinervis, the hard red wood of the Olokomeji Reserve, Kapok, Ceiba pentandra, and Cashew Nuts. A new Piptadenia, named Kerstingii after Dr. Kersting, was tried, but most of the plants died. An avenue of Eucalyptus citrifolia, with its delicate foliage, has developed well and fully deserves mention.

The teak has grown well everywhere, except in a small swampy area, where the trees look unhealthy. The very large crops of seeds during the last three years have caused the height-growth to fall off in comparison with earlier years.

Most of the trees are planted too far apart, but nevertheless, seeing the whole hillside, east of the station, covered with a teak forest produces a very wonderful effect on the mind.

If the teak alone is taken as a basis of valuation, the total value cannot be less than £2,500.

The Sokode District plantations have a great advantage over those at Atakpame, as tax labour has been used almost entirely and the population is much larger than elsewhere. As soon as an experiment with regard to agricultural crops, fruit and forest trees proved satisfactory, plantations were at once made.

The orchards, farms and plantations begin on the south-east slope of the hillside, round the station to the south, finishing to the west and north-west of the office building. The plantations occur between the altitude of 1,000 and 1,260 feet. The variations of soil are very remarkable, from poor laterite to rich loam, from sand to swamp; but it is not to be wondered at, when the large area is taken into account.

As at nearly all the other stations, teak has been the most extensively planted tree, some 81,000 seedlings having been set out on an area of 115·9 acres. Oil palms have also been planted in great numbers. These are set some distance apart to get the full benefit of the sun and develop large crowns and stems. Some of the other species planted are: Khaya Senegalensis, Iroko, Funtumia elastica, Ficus elastica, Ceara Rubber, Para, Hevea Braziliensis, Manihot dichotoma, Manihot heptaphylla and Manihot Pianhyensis. Three or four species only of the following trees: Albizzia Cæsalpinia, including Sappan, Cassia florida, Cedrela odorata, Berlinia Kerstingii, Ceiba pentandra, Detarium Senegalense, Diospyros mespiliformis, Anogeissus leiocarpus, Eucalyptus, Melia azedarach, Morinda citrifolia, Ormosia laxiflora, Parkia Africana, Pentadesma Kerstingii, Poinciana regia, Pseudocedrela Kotschyi, Pterocarpus erinaceus and Aspidosperma Quebracho.

[124]The mixed plantations are not very plentiful, but teak and oil palms have been planted together, though not systematically, and have proved a very profitable mixture, which is worthy of notice here. In its early years the oil palm is a shade-bearing tree, so that the shade of the teak does not hinder its growth. In the oil-bearing season the teak is leafless, which is beneficial to the formation of fruit in the oil palm. The dense foliage of the oil palm kills the adventitious shoots or side branches of the teak, so rendering pruning unnecessary. In the dry season the soil is protected most thoroughly by the evergreen foliage of the oil palm, and its masses of small roots conserve the moisture of the soil, while the wide-spreading roots of the teak allow the surface water to run away. For instance, teak and Iroko are not so suitable a mixture, as they both cast their leaves at the same time, though when planted together the teak tends to accelerate the height-growth of the Iroko, and also keeps it freer from the attacks of the gall bug.

If space permitted, many more instances of the advantage and disadvantage of these mixtures might be given.

Orchards have been largely planted at Sokode too. Oranges, limes, tangerines and Cola vera have done well, and the Spondias dulcis yields very large fruit. The date palms have not yet fruited. Fibre plants, including sisal hemp, and the Panama palms seem to be growing well; fibre for Panama hats is obtained from this palm.

A substation of Sokode, Bassari, was my next stopping place. The station is situated on the northern side of the mountain, overlooking the valley of the River Kamaa. The plantations, with the exception of the Ficus elastica, which is 200 feet higher up, are all planted below the station. The approximate altitude is 1,350 feet above sea-level.

The following species have been most extensively planted: Teak, Oil Palms, Afzelia, Khaya Senegalense, Iroko, Ebony, Kapok, Funtumia, Ficus elastica, Manihot heptaphylla, Manihot Pianhyensis, Aspidosperma Quebracho, Cæsalpinia Sappan and Cassia florida. Large orchards had been made, and these contained tangerines, lemon and many other kinds of tropical fruits; and very fine specimens of Eucalyptus trees showed how suitable this locality was for them.

About 200,000 trees have been planted here within ten years.

Funtumia, when planted with teak, grows well in this area, as the shade of the teak is beneficial to it; but planted alone, the leaves become a poor colour and drop prematurely. The same thing is noticeable when planted with mahogany.

In the case of Ebony, one of the knottiest forestry problems of Europe, viz. that of finding suitable trees for admixture, has been solved. Many of them died when planted pure, but the gaps being filled with teak, the ebony seedlings, put into competition with this[125] fast-growing tree, have been “drawn” up quicker than they would have otherwise grown, and have done remarkably well.

The most northerly station that I visited was Jendi, approximately on latitude 9·30, at an altitude of 640 feet above sea-level. The method of planting was slightly different at Jendi, agricultural crops being grown for three years between the rows of forest-tree seeds, only the oil palms and teaks being planted out as one-year seedlings from the nursery.

Besides these two species, Khaya Senegalensis, Afzelia Africana, Date Palms, Ceara Rubber, and Rambong Rubber have also been planted. Altogether 457,200 seedlings are growing.

As firewood alone is worth 3d. a bundle, timber of all kinds is very valuable in this locality, the teak plantation alone being worth £200.

Kete-Kratschi, the station adjoining Jendi and overlooking the Volta Valley, is a specially interesting one, because it was started by Graf Zech, the late Governor of Togo, who was so desirous of seeing plantations made everywhere. At this station the plantations were first made half a mile away, and these have done better than the later ones planted to the east of the station.

Teak has been largely planted, and considering the poor soil and low rainfall, has done remarkably well. For the first time a parasite in the shape of a species of Loranthus was found growing on the upper branches of two large teak-trees, but no diminution in the growth of the teak was noticeable. Afzelia, Khaya Klainii and Khaya Senegalensis have been planted in large numbers, and experiments made with Albizzia lebbek, Poinciana regia, Acacia catechu and Ceiba pentandra. A few oil palms and Casuarinas have found a place in the plantations. Eight miles from the Volta Valley is the station of Pfandu, situated on an open, isolated hill with a sheer cliff to the east and sloping gradually away to the north-west and south.

The only variation here in the planting system was that Cassada was largely used as an agricultural crop between the rows of tree seedlings, which were put in the year after the Cassada had been planted. Though the Cassada afforded a shade for the young seedlings, the latter did not seem to show sufficient growth to warrant a further trial of the system. The teak especially thrives here, the tree having reached a height of 36 feet and a girth of 14 inches, and these trees have already been felled for house-building purposes. The plantation is valued at £550.

Ceara rubber is now being tapped on a large scale. Sasswood, Erythrophlœum Guineense, Iroko, Oil Palms, and Funtumia elastica have been planted in large numbers, and a few Afzelias, Diospyros mespiliformis and Kapok trees.

The hill station of Misahöhe overlooks the valley of the Chedscho and Agu, with the highest mountain in Togo opposite. The people[126] have means to pay the tax here, so labour is scarce and prisoners are employed in keeping the plantations clean. The altitude of the highest plantation is 1,800 feet above sea-level. Manihot Glaziovii has been planted in greater numbers than any other tree; next comes Teak, then Para Rubber, of which one had been tapped with satisfactory results, Funtumia elastica, Oil Palms, Khaya Klainii, Sasswood and Cola vera. Small plantations of Ficus elastica, Cocoa and Anogeissus leiocarpus have also been made. One curious mixture was seen, Teak and Cola vera; the teak-trees tended to grow much faster, and the Cola benefited by the shade.

The most northerly and the driest stations are Sansane Mangu and Kalangasshi, where I was told 1,037 acres had been planted with Teak, Khaya Senegalensis, Ceara Rubber and Afzelia. It is proposed to form the third afforestation area of 15,000 acres at Kalangasshi.

In smaller quantities are to be found the Locust Bean, Parkia filicoidea, Manihot Glaziovii, Shea Butter, Iroko, Ficus elastica, Oil Palms, Funtumia elastica, Afzelia Africana and Kapok. Some teak and a few other trees had been planted at Bismarckburg, an old substation to Kete-Kratschi, and the same varieties at Ho, a substation to Misahöhe.

I was unable to obtain figures as to the number of trees planted at the above three stations, but teak is reported to be doing well at them all.

In addition to the species of indigenous trees planted, and also introduced, species such as Teak, Tectona grandis, and many others have been planted on a small scale.

Fig. 21.—Chlorophora excelsa, 1911.

Fig. 22.—Five-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode.

Fig. 23.—Five-year-old Khaya Senegalensis, 1911.

To face p. 126.

[127]IV. NOTES ON INDIGENOUS TREES

Pandanaceæ.

Pandanus Togoensis. Kpa (Ewe).

6½ feet in height.

Pandanus Kerstingii. Abá (Tschaudjo).

32½ feet in height.

Gramineæ.

Oxytenanthera Abyssinica.

Bamboo. 19½ feet to 26 feet in height.

Andropogon Sorghum. Wo (Ewe).

Used in broom-making and roof-covering.

Palmæ.

Raphia vinifera. Ala (Ewe); Taro (Tschaudjo); Kpakó (Anago); Ollo (Akposso).

Leaves used for brooms and brushes, mats, baskets, weaving, etc.

Phœnix spinosa or Phœnix reclinata.

32½ feet high. Leaves, weaving nets, etc.

Elæis Guineensis.

Oil palm. Covering for roofs from leaves.

Weaving of all kinds, coco fibre, carpets, brushes. Nuts.

Borassus flabelliformis or Hyphæne Togoensis, Hyphæne coriaceæ.

Plaiting for hats, nets, etc.

Carludovica palmata.

Flagellariaceæ.

Flagellaria indica L.

The tough outer stems used as ropes.

Bromeliaceæ.

Ananas. Atóto (Ewe).

An attempt has been made to bring the Togo pineapple into the markets, but without success. Fibre much used in weaving, etc.

Liliaceæ.

——: Dzogbeblôbe (Ewe).

Sansevieria Guineensis. Baugbaningbamu (Tschaudjo).

Long, flat leaves, 4⅞ feet long. Fibres useful in commerce. Bowstring hemp.

[128]Sansevieria cylindrica.

6½ feet long. Fibres useful in commerce. Bowstring hemp.

Aloe Barteri.

Aloe Buettneri.

Fibre from leaves of both Aloes.

Amaryllidaceæ.

Agave Sisalana.

Mauritius hemp.

Both have been introduced into Togo. Fibre used in weaving.

Taccaceæ.

Tacca pinnatifida. Dzogbenyabo (Ewe); Ludjŭ́ (Tschaudjo); Bōti (Dyakossi).

Used as a vegetable, having tubers like a potato, about the size of the fist. Leaves much divided. Fibres used in weaving all sorts of articles.

Musaceæ.

Wild bananas.

Mohammedan rosaries are made from the seeds.

Musa textilis.

Fibre much used.

Marantaceæ.

Aframomum.

Leaves for roofs.

Clinogyne flexuosa. Fita (Haussa); dworom (Asante).

Leaves used in paper-making.

Ulmaceæ.

Celtis Prantlii.

Dwarf variety. Bark fibre very much used.

Celtis integrifolia. Tyentyem (Mangu); Diki (Haussa); Kokojắ (Losso); Patakli (Atakpame).

130 to 162½ feet high. Wood not very good.

Moraceæ.

Chlorophora excelsa. Logo asagu (Ewe); Ssäre (Tschaudjo); Ukloba (Akposso); Odum (Asante); Sserre (Kratschi); Roco (Dahomey).

130 to 195 feet high. From 39 to 65 feet in circumference. One of the highest trees in the Colony. One of the most useful trees of West Africa for building purposes and furniture.

[129]Musanga Smithii.

65 feet in height. The wood very light, sometimes takes the place of cork. Wood used for cigar boxes, also sometimes in cellulose factories.

Myrianthus arboreus. Avogolo or awogolu (Ewe).

Myrianthus serratus.

Like horse chestnut in appearance; orange flowers. Wood brittle, used for fences.

Antiaris Africana (syn. Antiaris toxicaria). Logo (Ewe); Ssäre (Tschaudjo).

Fruit fig-like.

Ficus grandicarpa. Furu (Tschaudjo).

Milky juice oozes from bark when cut. 65 feet in height. Bark smooth; regular branching. Figs gathered in March.

Ficus vallis choudæ.

Ficus exasperata. Fola (Tschaudjo).

Ficus bembicicarpa. Kedā (Tschaudjo).

There are about 30 varieties of figs.

Ficus lutea.

Ficus rokko. Kedā (Tschaudjo).

Ficus tiliifolia. Adyokŭkola (Tschaudjo).

Ficus umbrosa. Tisemu (Tschaudjo).

Ficus djurensis. Tura (Tschaudjo).

Ficus brachypus. Ebö (Ewe); Bauri (Haussa).

Reddish bark. Wood heavy.

Ficus tesselata.

Ficus dusenoides.

Ficus Togoensis.

Ficus sokodensis.

Proteaceæ.

Faurea speciosa.

Protea Bismarckii. Düdürede (Tschaudjo).

Wood yellowish-red in colour, used for furniture. Height 32½ feet.

Olacaceæ.

Ximenia Americana.

Yellow heartwood resembles the scented white sandalwood.

Anonaceæ.

Uvaria chamæ. Agbana (Ewe); Pereng (Kabure); Liasá (Atakpame); Padiivīn (Difale).

Small tree with edible fruit. Wood greyish-brown, fairly heavy.

[130]Cleistopholis patens. Baledia or Welengéle (Tschaudjo); Nuso or Aru (Atakpame).

Height 32½ feet to 65 feet. Wood light—used for barrels and drums—of a grey colour.

Hexalobus monopetalus. Tschabola buanda (Tschaudjo); Tumbalaka (Atakpame).

Grows to large tree in Gallery Forests—small in Savannah. No trial of wood made yet.

Xylopia æthiopica. Tso (Ewe); Ssosi (Tschaudjo).

Light yellow wood of flexible nature, used for masts of boats.

Xylopia parviflora. Tschabolabunda (Tschaudjo).

Root wood takes place of cork.

Xylopia Eminii. Akatapuressosi (Tschaudjo).

Fairly large tree, wood reddish, used for furniture.

Anona sp.

Root wood of all the species forms a substitute for cork.

Myristicaceæ.

Pycnanthus Kombo. Óbala (Atakpame).

Soft wood. Used in box-making.

Capparidaceæ.

Cratæva religiosa. Anamolum (Tschaudjo); Dengma (Mangu); Tschengunga (Asante). Wood can be turned easily—like boxwood in appearance.

Rosaceæ.

Parinarium curatellifolium. Molemṓle (Tschaudjo); Insofaniwŏche (Mangu); Pótepote (Kratschi); Yafo (Kpedyi).

Trees of stunted appearance in Savannah, but growing higher in better soil. Wood is oak-like and very hard—uniform texture. Used for wooden pegs or pins, and other purposes in building, when durability is important.

Parinarium subcordatum. Bende noso (Tschaudjo); Insuopangi (Mangu); Pekĭre (Losso).

Used for rafters in roofs by the natives of Mangu.

Parinarium polyandrum. Bende noso (Tschaudjo).

Parinarium mobola.

Never attains any great height.

Parinarium Kerstingii.

Attains much greater height than the last, a tree worthy of notice.

Leguminosæ.

Albizzia Brownii. Pangalan (Tschaudjo); Kokpara (Atakpame).

Large, handsome forest tree, with greyish-green cracked[131] bark. Wood fairly hard. Light sapwood, dark brownish heartwood.

Albizzia Angolensis. Atikuzẽ (Ewe). Kŭpaussŭto (Tschaudjo).

Height 97½ feet. Diameter 4⅞ feet.

Albizzia fastigiata. Asihuë (Atakpame).

The Albizzias are all proof against the termites on account of their hardness. Wood of A. fastigiata used for the felloes of wheels.

Acacia catechu.

Acacia Arabica. Magarua or Bagarua (Hausa).

About 19½ feet in height. Characteristic tree of the Steppe north of Oti. Numerous.

Acacia suma. Gudjápūpŭ or Gudzawuwu (Ewe); Chrinika (Atakpame).

Height 32½ feet. Yellowish-white wood, heavy and very hard; used for agricultural implements.

Dichrostachys nutans. Ssossōsi (Tschaudjo); Beniti (Agome).

Hard wood—dark heartwood, almost black—used for making walking-sticks.

Prosopis oblonga. Akä́ka (Ewe); Pato (Tschaudjo); Pangi (Mangu); Kaki (Atakpame); Kpánenã (Kratschi).

Hard wood—termite-proof. Young branches used for handles of axes and hatchets.

Tetrapleura Thoningii. Prékese (Ewe).

A stately tree, only known in Akposso at present. The wood not yet much used.

Piptadenia Kerstingii. Kapaussuto (Kabure).

Huge tree—stands singly. Blossoms in January, when it is leafless. Fruit appears in April.

Piptadenia Africana. Alagbáta (Atakpame).

Wood doubtless of great value.

Entada Abyssinica. Ondutu (Tschaudjo); Kiria (Hausa); Ketschikantscha (Kratschi).

Tree stunted, leafless in the dry season. Wood spongy, not of much value.

Entada scandens. Klokpakpa (Ewe).

The well-known Liana, with husks 3¼ feet long, growing abundantly in the coast provinces. The fibre is much used in the making of nets, ropes, etc.

Parkia Africana. Wo (Ewe); Ssuto (Tschaudjo); Dorana (Haussa) Soroño (Asante); Gotschö́ne (Kratschi).

Height 65 feet. The hard, heavy, pale yellowish wood, locustwood of Sierra Leone. In commerce known as Caindah wood.

Parkia filicoidea. Ena (Atakpame).

Grows plentifully on the coast of Atakpame.

[132]Parkia biglobosa.

Height 97½ feet. Bark from a clear grey to dark brown, much furrowed.

Erythrophlœum Guineense. Tsa (Ewe); Kekëū (Tschaudjo).

Wood much valued for its heartwood and because of its rarity. Withstands the attacks of termites, and therefore much used in house and ship building, wheels for gun-carriages, etc. Takes a foremost place in export of wood.

Burkea Africana. Tschĭ́sili (Tschaudjo); Kiriandutschi (Haussa); Esseresu opĭrimú (Asante); Atakpla (Atakpame); Kinkiri (Kratschi).

Height 78 feet. Broad crown. Leaves covered with silky hairs; wood used by the natives for sword handles.

Cynometra megalophylla. Agumuắ (Tschaudjo).

Found in the coast forests.

Cynometra Afzelii.

Cynometra sp.

Detarium microcarpum. Depapātē (Tschaudjo); Naparli (Mangu); Kökpakpa (Kratschi); Záklu (Misahöhe).

A very heavy wood of a brown colour. Used in boat-building.

Detarium Senegalense.

Has a larger fruit than the D. microcarpum. A beautifully marked hard wood. Grows to a great height. Found exclusively on the coast.

Detarium Guineense.

Tamarindus indica. Keditia (Tschaudjo); Samia (Haussa); Tamarese (Asante); Kö́pu (Kratschi).

Grows near farms and in the prairies. A clear-coloured wood—very heavy to work; will not float in water; used for mill-wheels, powder coal, etc.

Afzelia Africana. Papac (Ewe); Welu (Tschaudjo); Apakka (Anago); Ukpami (Akposso); Kao (Haussa); Papau (Asante); Kebarre (Kratschi); Kpakpa (Fõ).

Height 48¾ feet. A very beautifully marked wood. Proof against attacks of termites; much valued in building and for table-making, also mortars for crushing yams.

Daniellia thurifera. Lipiti or Dsati (Ewe); Tschato (Tschaudjo); Orokpo (Anago); Auwolo (Akposso); Masche (Haussa); Saingja (Asante); Kenjang (Kratschi); Sa (Fõ).

Height from 65 to 97½ feet. Common in the prairies. The sapwood is white, and the heartwood reddish and very hard. Barrels are made from it.

Berlinia Heudelotiana. Ademá or Baba (Ewe); Buda͡u (Tschaudjo); Kochoá (Kratschi).

Large tree with white showy flowers, growing on banks of[133] rivers. Heavy wood of light brown colour. Only of secondary importance.

Berlinia Kerstingii. Tau (Tschaudjo).

65 to 97½ feet high, grows on open prairie. Wood used for rafters in house-building.

Berlinia acuminata.

Berlinia tomentosa.

Bauhinia reticulata. Klo (Ewe); Bākū (Tschaudjo); Nyama (Mangu); Okokotaka (Asante); Tamenasi (Atakpame); Aklō (Anecho).

Fairly heavy wood of dirty brown colour, easily worked. Very plentiful in the prairies.

Dialium Guineense. Zigbli or Toë (Ewe); Madŭ́ (Atakpame).

32½ to 48¾ feet high, valued as a wood for building, known as Black Tumbler or Velvet Tamarind on the market.

Distemonanthus Benthamianus.

One of the hardest woods of Togo, a gigantic tree.

Cassia Sieberiana. Gagamagati (Ewe); Tschamanu (Tschaudjo).

Grows best on dry, stony parts of the prairie. Light brown wood, extraordinarily hard, proof against termites. When burnt it causes headache.

Swartzia Madagascariensis. Subando (Tschaudjo).

A small tree growing by river banks and on the prairies. Heartwood reddish black.

Cordyla Africana. Kessing (Tschaudjo).

Wood used in table-making.

Ormosia laxiflora. Kedeleā or Kodoleā (Tschaudjo); Kokoro or Golloklo (Mangu); Obri (Asante); Kekpili (Kratschi); Akũgre (Kpedyi).

Beautiful clear brown wood, used by the natives for building. It is termite-proof.

Baphia nitida.

A small slender tree. Tons of the wood are sent yearly to England as red dye-wood.

Milletia atite. Atite (Ewe); Sso abalu (Tschaudjo).

Spread through all the colonies. Wood very uniformly marked of clear yellowish-white.

Pterocarpus erinaceus. Doti (Ewe); Tim (Tschaudjo); Segbe (Mangu); Keleyu (Kratschi).

Used as a red dye. Height 65 feet. Very heavy wood of reddish-brown colour. Sold as teak—one of the best woods of commerce.

Pterocarpus esculentus. Keruwowo (Tschaudjo); Futu (Kirikiri).

Smaller tree than the last, found in prairies. Wood fairly heavy and yellowish-white.

[134]Lonchocarpus sericeus. Lo (Ewe); Bäbäle (Atakpame); Alobla (Kpedyi).

Found in prairies and terrace woods. Flowers reddish-violet. Wood not well known.

Derris Stuhlmanii. Tschaloware (Tschaudjo); Bembu (Mangu).

Height 32½ feet. Hard, yellowish-white wood.

Andira inermis.

Fairly large mountain tree. The Cabbage Tree of the W. Indies. Hard, yellowish-white wood. The partridge wood of commerce.

Erythrina Senegalensis. Yrewo (Ewe); Nyimu (Mangu); Baklesu (Atakpame).

Slender tree 32½ feet in height. Bark deeply cleft, cork-like, and thorny. Wood very light and useful in many ways.

Dalbergia melanoxylon. Atiyi (Ewe).

The heartwood is almost hard as iron, proof against attacks of insects. Used for pillars and piles, also in the making of musical instruments.

Brachystegia spicæformis.

Macrolobium stipulaceum.

Pentaclethra macrophylla.

Zygophyllaceæ.

Balanites Ægyptiaca. Kunjanapcule (Mangu); Gushiocho (Kratschi).

Height 19½ to 26 feet. A beautiful golden brown wood, used in the making of ploughs, clubs, sticks.

Rutaceæ.

Fagara zanthoxyloides. Eché or Alãfe (Ewe); Kelengma͡u (Tschaudjo); Polu-Dyenye (Mangu); Tigu Schirafinsa (Mangu); Ata (Anago); Uche (Akposso); Che (Fõ); Klongbaŭ (Tim).

A fairly large tree of the prairie. In appearance like an apple-tree. Bark rough and knotty.

Limonia Warneckei. Kugŏ́nu (Tschaudjo); Nguni (Kabure); Tyanka or Hogogo (Atakpame).

Wood light yellow, uniform, hard, and very heavy.

Limonia Preussii.

Simarubaceæ.

Hannoa undulata. Dikbere (Tschaudjo); Yayabé (Mangu); Kelantori (Kratschi).

The wood is of a light greyish-white colour, fairly heavy.

Meliaceæ.

Khaya Senegalensis. Frimu (Tschaudjo).

A large tree sometimes attaining a height of 130 feet and[135] over. 13¼ feet in diameter. Has a beautiful surface; is most useful in commerce for furniture, carriages, cases for microscopes, etc. The fruit is about the size of an apple, with four valves and four rows of flat seeds.

Khaya Klainii.

The seed vessel has five valves, and the fruit is larger than the last. Known as the African or Gambia mahogany of commerce.

Pseudocedrela Kotschyi. Alu (Ewe); Dituturi (Tschaudjo); Krŭbete (Asante); Kedemponasi (Kratschi).

65 feet in height. The wood is of a greyish colour, serviceable in building and furniture industry. The natives use it for drums and barrels.

Carapa procera.

Not much known, though used in Senegambia as a building mahogany.

Melia Azedarach.

A small, much cultivated tree; the purplish blue flowers are like the Spanish elder. The sapwood whitish, the heartwood reddish. Easy to work; used in the making of furniture.

Ekebergia Senegalensis. Frimŭabalŭ́ (Tschaudjo).

A large tree growing in the mountainous districts. Wood light yellow and fairly heavy, and uniform texture.

Trichilia emetica. Adyanyapesō (Tschaudjo).

Trichilia Prieuriana. Dilifū (Tschaudjo).

These two are small trees, fairly easy to work, of a light yellowish-coloured wood.

Polygalaceæ.

Securidaca longepedunculata. Foji (Tschaudjo); Dyōro (Dyakossi); Ua magungŭ́na (Haussa); Atakpati (Atakpame).

Small tree. A strong useful fibre obtained from the small branches.

Euphorbiaceæ.

Phyllanthus discoideus. Kongkonga (Tschaudjo); Dantivi (Atakpame); Kamfuắ (Bagu).

A tall primeval forest tree—occasional clumps in the villages. Hard heavy wood of a beautiful red colour.

Hymenocardia acida. Adudze (Ewe); Atidje (Atakpame).

The wood is fairly hard, light brown, with the year-rings clearly marked. Very brittle, so only fit for firewood.

[136]Hymenocardia ulmoides. Taboia (Atakpame); Bälä (Afem).

Height 130 to 162½ feet.

Uapaca Togoensis. Egba (Ewe); Kidgeling (Tschaudjo); Nagudi (Atakpame).

A prairie tree of medium size. Beautiful brown-coloured wood; used for firewood.

Uapaca Heudelotii. Oli (Atakpame).

Grows in the terraced woods. Useful in building.

Alchornea cordifolia. Tschufṓu (Tschaudjo); Awowlo (Atakpame).

A small prairie tree. The hollow twigs are used in pipe-making.

Sapium Guineense.

Sapium Kerstingii.

Sapium Mannianum.

These three trees are not of much importance.

Ricinodendron Africanus.

Vegetable oils and fats obtained from this tree. The wood is soft and used for fuel.

Anacardiaceæ.

Mangifera Indica.

Mango tree. A greyish wood, useful for building purposes.

Anacardium occidentale. Atisiā (Ewe).

Reddish, fairly hard wood, used in boat-building, also for charcoal.

Spondias lutea. Kinyelu (Tschaudjo); Akiko or Agliko (Atakpame); Nayile (Konkomba).

Tall, slender tree. The fruit is edible, yellow, and downy. Abundant in the prairies, now introduced in many localities. Bright-coloured wood, fairly hard and heavy.

Pseudospondias microcarpa. Onyangba (Atakpame).

Stately tree, 65 feet in height. Nothing is known of the wood.

Lannea acida. Eknalokpoe (Ewe); Käla (Tschaudjo); Tyĕtĕbu (Mangu); Asogedaka (Atakpame).

A common tree in the prairies. The greyish hard wood is used by the natives for arm-rings, chairs, etc.

Lannea Barteri. Tingbatau or Patandeu (Tschaudjo); Bēnature (Mangu); Akú (Atakpame.)

This tree has a characteristic spiral bark. It grows to a height of 65 feet, with reddish edible fruit.

Hæmatostaphis Barteri.

Has a beautiful fruit of a delicious flavour, the blood-plum of Sierra Leone. The wood has not yet been tried.

Fig. 24.—Teak Plantation made in 1907 at Pfandu, in 1911.

Fig. 25.—Khaya Klaineana, 17 feet in girth, Misahohe Station.

Fig. 26.—Corner of a 1907 Teak Plantation, Pfandu, in 1911.

To face p. 136.

[137]Heeria insignis.

The wood is much valued in the making of specially good furniture.

Sapindaceæ.

Blighia sapida. Adza or Adja (Ewe); Peso (Tschaudjo); Aki (Asante); Keká (Kratschi).

The wood is light yellow, not of any value. Planted near houses as an orchard tree, and also for its shade. 97½ feet in height.

Eriocœlum Kerstingii. Nimwau Pesō (Tschaudjo); Yevo-Gboma (Atakpame).

97½ feet in height in the coast forests. A good furniture and building wood.

Talisiopsis oliviformis. Waogbŭ́m (Tschaudjo).

Perhaps identical with Zanha golungensis. 65 to 97½ feet high, with reddish bark. Wood used for furniture and building. The fruit is downy, of an orange colour, and edible.

Allophyllus Africanus. Weti (Atakpame); Kōtīa (Yendi).

A small bushy tree. The wood used for cleaning the teeth. Useful for working in many ways.

Melianthaceæ.

Bersama Doeringii.

This tree has aerial roots. The blossoms in long bunches of white flowers.

Rhamnaceæ.

Zizyphus Jujuba.

A small shrub-like tree with edible berries. The wood is used in saddle-making and for agricultural implements.

Zizyphus mucronatus. Pangbaïngu (Tschaudjo); Sausanyebui (Mangu).

The wood is used in wagon-building.

Tiliaceæ.

Grewia gigantiflora. Adzadze (Ewe); Tolábŭ (Atakpame).

Grewia villosa. Adzadze (Ewe); Yumba (Mangu).

The natives use the wood for handles of spears.

Malvaceæ.

Thespesia populnea.

The sap-wood is a bright red, and the hard heartwood a dark red; used for carriage-building and furniture.

[138]Bombacaceæ.

Bombax Buonopozense. Fulṓ or Folṓ (Tschaudjo); Sanbúgo (Mangu).

Grows on high ground and also by the streams. Height about 162½ feet. A marvellous sight when covered with its crimson blossoms. The bark is smooth and bright grey, with rough cracked appearance. Of small account in commerce.

Adansonia digitata. Adido (Ewe); Kuka (Haussa); Dádie (Asante); Kelle (Kratschi).

Called also bread-fruit tree.

Ceiba pentandra. Wu (Ewe); Komu (Tschaudjo); Ogu (Anago); Ju (Akposso); Huti (Fõ).

Wood little used, though it should be valuable in the cellulose factories.

Eriodendron Nigericum.

Sterculiaceæ.

Sterculia tragacantha. Akplẽ or Loloẽ (Ewe); Kaderabobo (Tschaudjo).

Sterculia tomentosa. Akpoklo or Bofuti (Ewe); Modetu (Tschaudjo); Bolusila (Mangu); Oduduku (Atakpame); Kelipotu (Kratschi); Apokpo (Anecho).

Sterculia oblonga.

The wood of these three trees is soft and of little value. The fibre strong and tough. Tree medium height.

Cola cordifolia. Uuti (Ewe); Dagbongbore (Tschaudjo); Nutssunutssu (Anago); Anwolo (Akposso); Eussŭ́ (Misahöhe).

A huge tree of the Gallery Forests, also found singly near villages. The leaves are a foot long. The wood hard and heavy, used in Senegambia for strengthening the coast and for rafters.

Cola acuminata.

The tree resembles the poplar. Proof against the attacks of insects; useful for carriage and furniture-making, and ship-building.

Cola laurifolia. Jojau (Kabure).

The wood is very pliable and used in the making of bows (for shooting).

Cola caricifolia. Alensuneku (Atakpame).

Cola astrophora.

Cola supfiana.

Cola Afzelii.

Triplochiton Johnsonii.

Triplochiton Nigericum.

Pterygota Schumanniana.

The wood of these five trees is little known.

[139]Firmiana Barteri. Tschingbelika (Tschaudjo).

From 130 to 162½ feet high. The regular, pyramidal-shaped trunk ends in plank-like roots. The natives make cups and bowls and floats from the wood. The flowers are a beautiful scarlet, appearing before the leaves.

Ochnaceæ.

Ochna Afzelii. Tanam (Tschaudjo).

Moderately high tree, with hard, beautifully-marked bright brown wood. Used in turning and table-making.

Lophira alata. Parapára (Tschaudjo); Akpakpla (Anago); Otugba (Akposso); Kekrefunde (Asante); Belengbe (Kratschi); Kotublassu (Fõ).

A very common tree of the prairies, so much like the Shea butter as to be frequently mistaken for it. The wood is hard, heavy, and dark, reddish-brown, and sold as African oak.

Guttiferæ.

Pentadesma Kerstingii. Budyonū (Tschaudjo).

Grows on the wooded banks of streams. A tall, slender tree with lightish brown wood, very similar in texture to that of the Ochnaceæ family. Used by the natives in various ways.

Dipterocarpaceæ.

Monotes Kerstingii. Kesáng (Tschaudjo).

Height about 48¾ feet. It is found frequently in the prairies. Easily recognized by the likeness of its leaf to a curved hollow of a hand. The wood is only useful for burning.

Flacourtiaceæ.

Oncoba spinosa. Kpoe (Ewe); Krutū (Tschaudjo); Kongowura (Kotokoli).

A tall, thorny shrub, with white rose-like flowers. The wood is capable of taking a good polish, used in inlaying.

Caloncoba Gilgiana. Efiohlĕ (Ewe).

A fair-sized tree. The wood is also used for inlaying.

Rhizophoraceæ.

Rhizophora mangle. Woto or Atrati (Ewe).

Rhizophora mucronata.

Little is yet known of the mangroves of Togo. The Rhizophora mucronata of East Africa has a reddish brown wood, hard and heavy, but easily worked; used in building.

Combretaceæ.

Combretum sokodense. Ssissiku (Tschaudjo).

Flourishes in pasture land and by streams. The bark is[140] cork-like and deeply corrugated, the wood brownish and very hard. Height, 35 ft.

Combretum Kerstingii. Alembole (Tschaudjo).

Hard, greyish-brown wood, used for firewood.

Terminalia dictyoneura. Ssua (Tschaudjo).

Terminalia macroptera. Ssua dau (Tschaudjo).

These two Terminalia both have a beautiful glossy brown wood, useful for many purposes. Both are about 48¾ feet in height.

Terminalia Baumannii. Opäti (Atakpame).

A beautiful prairie tree, the wood not yet tried.

Terminalia superba.

Terminalia Togoensis.

Pteleopsis Kerstingii. Ssissinā (Tschaudjo).

A fair-sized tree in the Bassari savannah. The natives say it has neither flowers nor fruit, but this naturally cannot be the case.

Anogeissus leiocarpus. Tsetse or Echéché (Ewe); Kodelia (Tschaudjo); Anyi (Anago); Ogo (Akposso); Kánnâ (Asante); Kakanla (Kratschi); Chlehó (Fõ).

A tree 97½ feet high, growing on the river banks and on the moist savannahs, very widespread. The fruit is much like that of our alder. The wood very hard, proof against attacks of the termites, with a black heartwood like ebony, and used as such. The most valuable wood of the Colony.

Myrtaceæ.

Syzygium Guineense. Tschapēa (Tschaudjo).

A fair-sized tree on the shore slopes. A white, easily-worked wood. Used by the natives for making tools, images of their gods, chairs, etc. In some parts for building purposes.

Araliaceæ.

Cussonia Barteri. Fegblo (Ewe); Kongolu (Tschaudjo); Indoabaka (Mangu); Digo (Anago); Obbŏ (Akposso); Bōnugŭ́ (Misahöhe); Gotti (Fõ).

A characteristic tree of the Baobab savannahs near Misahöhe. The wood is spongy and cannot be worked, but the ashes are of use in making a blue dye.

Umbelliferæ.

Peucedanum araliaceum, var. fraxinifolium. Ländo (Tschaudjo).

A tree under medium height, of the pasture lands. The bark of the young shoots is used for squirts and syringes. The wood is easy to cut.

[141]Sapotaceæ.

Butyrospermum Parkii. Yotsa or Yo (Ewe); Ssomū (Tschaudjo); Káde (Hausa); Krangkú (Asante); Kedempo (Atakpame); Aiomiti (Kirikiri).

The Shea butter tree. Height 48¾ to 65 feet. The tree is so plentiful that it is a rare thing not to find one in any district. The fruit is soft and edible; the wood a beautiful brownish-red of even texture, and capable of taking a good polish. Much used in furniture-making.

Pachystela cinerea.

An immense tree growing along the coast. Wood unknown in the market.

Chrysophyllum obovatum. Katumbulia (Tschaudjo).

A tree of medium height with edible fruit. Its wood not known in commerce. It should be of use, as are most of those belonging to this family.

Malacantha Warneckeana. Akara (Atakpame); Pusum (Lamatessi).

A large tree found among the mountain streams, and also in the plains of the coast regions. The trunk has on the outside wavy cross-lines that look like a border, and give it a very curious appearance. The hard wood is made into shuttles, shovels, scoops, etc., by the natives.

Mimusops multinervis. Ewelisomū (Tschaudjo); Bräkrankū (Asante); Gjira (Kratschi); Ewäti (Anecho).

Mimusops Kerstingii. Ewelisomu (Tschaudjo).

The wood of both these two Mimusops is like that of the Butyrospermum in colour and structure. Rarely found higher than 32½ feet.

Mimusops lacera. Wueti (Ewe).

The tallest and most beautiful tree in the immediate neighbourhood of the sea. Its hard red wood is made into walking-sticks, also for inlaying and veneering of furniture and parquets.

Ebenaceæ.

Diospyros mespiliformis. Dongke or Jeti (Ewe); Tingalō (Tschaudjo).

A semi-cultivated tree growing to the height of 81¼ feet. The trunk is often from 3¼ to 4¹⁄₁₆ feet in diameter. A widely spreading shady tree. Its height in the prairies is much less. Found very abundantly and takes a high place as in copses and park lands. The fruit is edible, round, and of a bright red colour. The heartwood is hard and durable, and black as ebony. The tree is of great value commercially for many purposes as ebony.

[142]Diospyros mombuttensis. Liä-nuwasaure (Tschaudjo); Etjannaka (Akposso).

A tree growing only from small to moderate size on the hill slopes, with a bright-red fruit—a thorn-bearing tree. The wood is durable and hard, used for shovels, walking-sticks, rafters, etc., and the flexible branches in the making of traps.

Diospyros tricolor.

One of the most frequent trees on the shore and prairies of the coast region, growing only to the height of a man. It has a yellowish-red three-sided fruit; the stem seldom attains more than the thickness of the finger. It is used for walking-sticks. A hard white wood.

Maba Warneckii.

A fair-sized noticeable tree, rarely found, and little known.

Oleaceæ.

Linociera nilotica.

A small, unimportant tree. The wood is light brown, of even texture, and great durability.

Loganiaceæ.

Strychnos Buettneri. Kongofura (Tschaudjo).

Strychnos laxa. Wagbebĕ (Ewe); Naprámpŏgo (Dyakossi); Egbo (Atakpame); Go͠ngóvi (Kpedyi); Yokharaúgu (Dagomba).

Both these trees have a strong stem of bright-coloured wood, with a fine grain, and should be of value. The fruit of the Buettneri is edible, something like an orange.

Strychnos pubescens. Kongŏ (Tschaudjo).

The natives only use it as firewood.

Anthocleista Kerstingii. Kuwondëü (Tschaudjo); Egu (Atakpame).

Height 97½ feet, growing in the terraced or gallery woods, and also in small groves. The trunk is very straight at first, then widely branched. The trunk of the young trees is marked with leaf-scars; the leaves attain the length of feet, and are used by the natives as quivers for their arrows. The white, easily-worked wood is used for many purposes.

Apocynaceæ.

Holarrhena Wulfenbergii.

A tall tree of the Agome Mountains and the coast forests of Sokodé-Bassari, also found singly near villages and farms. The white wood is fairly heavy and easily worked, used in carving figures, etc.

Conopharyngia crassa.

A tree of varying height, with drooping branches. Found only in Misahöhe.

[143]Voacanga Africana. Kongkong (Tschaudjo).

A fair-sized, widely-spread tree in copses and by the streams. The wood is like that of the Holarrhena, only of a deeper shade. The round white-coloured fruit, growing two together, look like spots on the dark foliage.

Kickxia Africana (syn. Funtumia elastica).

Reaches the height of 65 feet. Growing in Misahöhe and Kete-Kratschi. The wood is little known. All the trees of this family are distinguished by a rich milky juice in bark, leaves, and fruit.

Alstonia congensis.

Borraginaceæ.

Cordia Gharaf.

A fair-sized tree known only in one locality. A hard, durable wood used in building. There is no doubt that there are other species in Togo, and so far as the Cordia has been used, it has proved to be a most useful tree.

Ehretia cymosa. Okoni (Kratschi).

Found in the coast regions, growing to the height of 13 to 16¼ feet. Seldom met with. It has masses of white blossoms; the fruit is a berry about the size of a pea. The wood has not yet been proved.

Verbenaceæ.

Vitex Cienkowskii. Fõ (Ewe); Panyero (Tschaudjo); Orli (Anago); Uoli (Akposso); Koto (Dyakossi); Gidjiko (Kratschi); Fõjiti (Anecho); Narenga (Dagomba).

A large barkless tree, with spreading crown. Leaf with five divisions in the form of a hand, the flowers in large clusters of white blossoms. Ink is made from the shiny black, edible fruit and the young leaves. This tree is widely spread over the hill slopes and forest prairies. The wood is moderately hard and useful for inlaying; the natives make ribs of boats from it.

Vitex Camporum. Panyerōbuda (Tschaudjo); Insuakoto (Mangu); Idjawli (Akposso).

Leaves with three divisions, the underside hairy. Flowers blue, in clusters like the last. The fruit is more like an acorn, and the tree shrub-like. The natives make fishing-tackle from the wood.

Vitex cuneata.

Premna Zenkeri.

A tall tree growing on the mountain slopes of Bassari.[144] Leaves simple and broad; the small, white flowers are in panicles a foot long. The wood is entirely like the V. Cienkowskii.

Avicennia Africana. Amu-ati (Ewe).

A broad-spreading leafy tree from 39 to 48¾ feet in height, and about 7 inches in diameter; leaves dark green, the underside grey, and flowers a smudgy white. Its wood is used for boat-building in Gabun, but little known elsewhere. It is closely allied to the Avicennia officinalis of East Africa, which has a beautiful, violet-coloured wood; is very hard and heavy.

Bignoniaceæ.

Spathodea campanulata. Adadasé (Ewe); Gbetschigbetschi (Atakpame).

A wonderful leafy tree, 97½ feet in height, with wide-spreading crown of foliage, and greyish-green warty trunk. In the flowering time the tree is a mass of crimson flowers—a beautiful sight in the coast woods and on the hill slopes. In Europe it goes by the name of tulip-tree. The buds are filled with a sweet, watery fluid, which the children use as squirts. The wood should be of great service, but does not seem to be used.

Newbouldia lævis. Lifui (Ewe); Akinale (Tschaudjo); Aboboë (Atakpame).

A medium-sized prairie tree, found plentifully also near the villages, where the small branches are used as material for fences. When the tree is young, it stands very erect, but later the remarkably long branches bend to the ground. The flowers are either rose-coloured, violet, or bright blue. The bright-coloured wood is fairly heavy, uniform in texture, very similar to the V. Cienkowskii.

Markhamia tomentosa. Tschitschíñe (Atakpame).

Appears to grow only among the mountains. The flowers are yellow, with red stripes; the leaves and husks both yellowish brown. Children use the flower buds as playthings. The wood is like that of the Newbouldia lævis.

Markhamia lutea.

Usually found as a shrub, but occasionally to the height of 19½ to 26 feet high, with rough or warty, blackish bark, and yellow flowers in great quantities.

Stereospermum Kunthianum. Essobelīa (Tschaudjo); Eké-deká (Atakpame).

A small tree seldom found taller than 32½ feet, a greenish-grey bark, divested of leaves. When in bloom it has much the[145] appearance of a peach-tree. The flowers, which appear before the leaves, are pink, edged with white and reddish-brown, with striped and spotted lip. Found frequently in the forest savannahs, and occasionally on the highlands. The brownish dye from the bark is used by the girls for their lips, and chewed as Kola. The wood is much the same as the last three species.

Kigelia Africana. Nyakpekpe (Ewe); Abilū (Tschaudjo); Njãkpokpo (Anecho); Njãkpẽ (Anlo).

Found in damp places in the prairies and on the banks of rivers. The well-known liver-sausage tree. The wood is suitable for small buildings.

Kigelia pinnata.

Rubiaceæ.

Hymenodictyon Kurria.

All belonging to this family have simple leaves in pairs. Found as a shrub and a small tree in the terraced woods and mountains. The solid wood, of a clear mahogany colour, is much used in India for agricultural implements, but little known here in Togo.

Crossopteryx Africana. Tyenyeṓlo or Pasau (Tschaudjo).

Crossopteryx Kotschyana.

Found to the height of 32½ feet in the prairies of the coast zone and a few scattered inland. According to the opinion of an importer, this wood is one of the best of Togo. It is clear brown, very hard and heavy, and of fine texture. The natives make shuttles and tablets for the Koran from it.

Adina microcephala. Barā (Tschaudjo).

A tree of 97½ feet in height, growing on the river banks of Sokodé-Bassaris. The wood takes a very high place as to value, but it has a peculiar odour and an oily feeling to the touch. The fibres from the twigs are made into tooth-brushes.

Mitragyne macrophylla. Yŏwi or Togba (Atakpame).

A gigantic tree growing on the swampy banks of streams, with an excellent wood used by the natives for making doors, drums and barrels.

Mitragyne inermis. Intyú (Dyakossi); Shero (Dagomba).

Smaller than the last, found on ground which is occasionally under water. Its yellowish-white wood is used for beams and rafters. It forms also a beautiful, easily-worked furniture wood.

Mitragyne Africana. Séssëu (Atakpame).

A small tree which flourishes in swampy places and parts overflowed by the streams. Its blossoms are used as hay. The particularly valuable wood is proof against attacks of the[146] termite, very hard, and much used in building. The wood of all the Mitragyne species are valued in Tropical Africa on account of their durability and being proof against weather and easily worked.

Sarcocephalus sambucinus. Akukobasa (Ewe); Kedjetjelo (Tschaudjo); Nyimo (Atakpame).

A small shrubby tree, with long, tendril-like branches, white fragrant flowers, and strawberry-coloured fruit. The wood is used considerably for mosaic work and inlaying.

Gardenia Thunbergia. Fifei (Ewe); Kau kutoku (Tschaudjo); Lángan͠a (Kratschi); Fifäti (Anecho).

A small tree or shrub with rigid branches, fragrant white flowers, and yellow, spindle-shaped fruit, tasting like a crab-apple, scattered in small clumps over the prairie. Spoons and similar articles are made from the white, fairly hard wood.

Gardenia ternifolia. Kau këure (Tschaudjo); Nassarlĭ or Nabuli (Dyakossi).

Similar to the preceding tree in appearance, etc., but the fruit is cylindrical in form, like a small cucumber.

Gardenia medicinalis. Kau belia or abalia (Tschaudjo).

The same characteristics as the last; the fruit is much smaller, round, and furrowed.

Gardenia assimilis.

Gardenia Abeokutā.

These trees are all found in the higher forests as undergrowth, and are very similar in every respect.

Plectronia vanguerioides. Dädäfunde (Atakpame).

Medium-sized tree. Occasionally found as a shrub in the coast and mountain forests. The wood is only useful as firewood.

Pavetta Baconiana. Genferrebiesó (Mangu).

Pavetta crassipes.

Used as firewood.

Morinda citrifolia. Amakḗ (Ewe); Ketyĕlenga (Tschaudjo); Aké (Atakpame); Maticki (Ho).

A tree 32½ feet in height, with a broad, shady crown, seems to be bearing blossoms or fruit all the year round. The flowers are in the form of little round bunches; the fruit is greenish-yellow, spongy, and growing together in large masses—each fruit about the size of a pear. The white wood is not of much value, but the rootwood is sold in the native markets for making yellow dye. Two species of this tree seem to be known in Togo, one found frequently on the coasts, the best known, and another variety in North Togo, less common and with a much smaller fruit.

[147]Compositæ.

Vernonia Senegalensis. Avenya (Ewe); Tusima or Tingma (Tschaudjo).

The only one of the family which attains a height of 19½ feet, and stem of 6 or 7 inches in diameter. The leaves are a greyish-green; the flowers, a yellowish-white, appear in great masses. The wood is fairly heavy, light brown in colour, and very easy to work. Of the many varieties from which the twigs and roots are used for brushes, this one is the most valuable.

[148]APPENDIX I

LIST OF INTRODUCED SPECIES PLANTED

•  1. Terminalia catappa.
•  2. Casuarina equisetifolia.
•  3. Tectona grandis.
•  4. Swietenia bijuga.
•  5. Cedrela odorata.
•  6. Pithecolobium dulcis.
•  7. Artocarpus incisa.
•  8. Cassia florida.
•  9. Bauhinia Krughii.
• 10. Eucalyptus marginata.
• 11. Eucalyptus citriodora.
• 12. Eucalyptus robusta.
• 13. Cæsalpina arborea.
• 14. Cæsalpina sappan.
• 15. Cæsalpina rostrata.
• 16. Cæsalpina coriaria.
• 17. Cæsalpina regia.
• 18. Poinciana regia.
• 19. Poinciana drepanophylla.
• 20. Melia azedarach.
• 21. Manihot glaziovii.
• 22. Manihot dichotoma.
• 23. Manihot pyanhyensis.
• 24. Manihot heterophylla.
• 25. Aspidosperma quebracho.
• 26. Phœnix dactylifera.
• 27. Cola vera.
• 28. Ficus elastica.
• 29. Ficus Schlechteri.
• 30. Albizzia amara.
• 31. Albizzia stipulata.
• 32. Acacia Arabica.
• 33. Cynometra megalophylla.
• 34. Detarium Senegalense.
• 35. Parinarium intermedia.

[149]APPENDIX II

CENSUS OF PLANTATIONS IN TOGO

[150]APPENDIX III

TOGO—FOREST EXPORTS

Fig. 27.—Large Teak Tree, Tectona grandis, Ebuttemetta Gardens, sixteen years old.

Fig. 28.—Large Para (Hevea Braziliensis), Ebuttemetta Gardens, age about sixteen years.

To face p. 150.

[151]CHAPTER VIII

NIGERIA

I. The Rivers, Ports and Forests of Nigeria.

Starting from Lagos, the first port of call, the coast is flat, sandy, and low-lying as compared with the typical seaboard of Europe with its cliffs. Long sandy beaches with scattered coconut palms in the background are more prevalent in this part of Nigeria than the water-covered mangrove swamps, showing rather a stunted growth. Westwards from Lagos there are the scattered mangrove formations in the estuary of the Yewa River, near which is the trading station of Badagri. Following the line of the coast, somewhat better mangrove areas are found towards the mouth of the Benin, Escravos and Forcados Rivers. The estuary of the Niger, extending from the last-named river as far as the Sombreiro, shows varied development of the mangrove type of vegetation, as well as the first admixture of other hardwood trees at the edge of the mangrove zone. On the way one passes the Ramos, the Brass, Nun, St. Bartholomew and St. Barbara, each forming outlets for the forests further north. Beyond the Sombreiro the estuaries of the New Calabar, Cawthorne and Bonny Rivers contain further mangrove areas, usually in the form of large islands. Eastwards of the Bonny River the mangrove to some extent gives way to comparatively large areas known as rain forests, owing to the comparatively heavy rainfall in those localities. The Andoni, Opobo, Kwaiebo form the outlets for these forests.

The Cross, Calabar, Kwa and Akwayefe are the most easterly rivers in Nigeria. In the estuary of each, more especially of the Cross River, the finest mangrove forests are to be seen. Next to these in point of height and straightness of bole are the forests on the banks of the St. Barbara and Forcados Rivers.

The Lagos River, with its present bar-draught of 19 feet, is followed eastwards by the port of Forcados, showing 19 feet. As subsidiaries, and northwards from Forcados, are the inland ports of Warri and Koko, both, and especially the latter, being timber-shipping centres. Sapeli, another 40 miles up the Benin River beyond Koko, was and still remains a timber port of some importance, and from it the trade name of one kind of mahogany, namely Sapeli wood, is derived. Brass, considerably further eastward, is practically a seaside port, to which some produce[152] of the Niger Delta is brought. Degema, Bugama, Bakana, Okrika and Port Harcourt are inland ports all reached from Bonny, situated at the mouth of the river of the same name. Opobo, on the Imo, is yet another inland port with a 14-foot bar at the river mouth. Eket is the small port for the Kwaiebo River, whence small steamers run to Calabar. Oron, on the western side of the estuary, is also a port worthy of mention. Though Calabar is some 15 miles above the junction of the Akwayefe, Kwa and Cross Rivers, it is the chief port of Eastern Nigeria. It is situated on the side of a hill some 200 feet high on the bank of the Calabar River, which is half a mile wide at this point.

Turning now to the next type of forest met with after leaving the mangrove zone, the thick, heavy, evergreen rain forest is seen. On the western side in the province of Abeokuta it has very largely been destroyed, only comparatively small isolated areas remaining. In the Ondo province, however, some of the most extensive and heaviest timber areas of this type are found. A good network of rivers, such as the Ogun, Ona, Oshun, Oni, Shasha and Owenna, when flooded, form the outlets for timber worked in these localities. In the northern part of the Warri province and the southern part of the Benin province large representative areas of the evergreen type are found, though there they tend to mingle with the tall, mixed deciduous forests. To a small extent in the Owerri, but to the largest extent in the Calabar province, the rain forests find their finest development, culminating in the Oban Hills on the eastern side of the latter provinces. The rainfall there is 175 inches per annum.

The Sasswood is one of the first trees to appear when the mangrove swamp gives way to the evergreen forest. Other large trees are the mahoganies, found chiefly on the old banks; red ironwood, with its brilliant red fresh leaves in the late autumn. In fact, these leaves are often taken for flowers, owing to their very bright colour. They gradually, however, assume a dark green colour as the season advances. An unidentified species of gum-copal which grows to colossal dimensions is found scattered rather diffusely and curiously in these areas. Different kinds of ebony, with wood varying from brown to green black, are seen throughout the zone, though, as with other trees, a different species is found in the different provinces; on the whole, the blackest wood is found where the rainfall is heaviest.

The mixed deciduous zone, which consists both of deciduous and evergreen trees, mingles and gradually develops at the northern edge of the evergreen rain forest; in many cases the one goes over into the other almost imperceptibly, and it is only perhaps after half a day’s march that one realizes that one has left the evergreen type behind and reached the forests where half the trees lose their leaves every year. A very large development of these forests is found in the Abeokuta, Oyo, Jebu-ode and Ondo provinces. Very heavy inroads have[153] been made in these forests, and it remains to be seen whether sufficient will be preserved to ensure the future fertility of the soil and the requisite rainfall. One of the most prominent species is the cotton-tree, with its great root buttresses and muscle-like protuberances from the stem. The Obechi, or Arere, is another magnificent timber tree, with soft white wood and maple-like leaves, which grows to huge dimensions. The African greenheart, which may grow 12 feet in diameter, is hard enough to break the blade of an axe. The Iroko, taking the place of oak in African economy, is another tree frequently met with, and it extends its area of distribution as the forests are opened up with clearings. East of the Niger this formation is only found to a small extent in the Onitsha province; a little larger in the northern part of the Owerri province, and still largest in the northern part of the Calabar and the southern part of the Ogoja province. In fact, the finest development of the mixed deciduous forests is found in the last-named province, just north of the Cross River, where it is really at the edge of the true deciduous forest. In this zone some three kinds of mahogany are found, in some places very diffusely scattered, in others up to a thousand mature trees in eight square miles, or in a third nearly every tree a mahogany on both sides of the road for over half a mile. The four species in this zone vary less from province to province than they do in the case of the evergreen forest zone, though the total number may be greater.

Beginning again on the western side, the open deciduous forest or dry-zone formation shows itself over a very wide extent in Oyo, Northern Jebu-ode, and in the Northern Benin provinces. East of the Niger it is of wide extent in the Northern Onitsha and Northern Ogoja provinces, but it also occurs in the northern part of the Owerri province as an artificial product of man’s destruction of the original forest. In some places this formation, owing to the trees being close together, more nearly approaches the deciduous forest. In others, owing to the poor and stunted nature of the arboreal growth, it more nearly approaches the open grass savannah formation. Only north of the Oyo province near Shaki, or north of Ogoja in that province, could it be said that this kind of formation is seen.

One of the most prominent kinds of trees found is the Shea Butter, the nut of which is used in the making of chocolate cream and margarine. This tree, varying in size from a large oak to a short, stunted, gnarled and burnt relic of better forest conditions, is found over very wide areas in the Oyo and northern part of the Abeokuta province. Strangely enough, this tree does not appear in the northern part of the Benin or Onitsha province, and only occurs again in the north-eastern corner of the Ogoja province. The locust-trees, with their open crown and feathery leaves and long pods similar to French beans, are conspicuous all through the zone, and near the villages are specially preserved.[154] Mahogany is represented in this zone as another species which does not attain a greater girth than 10 feet and which is often gnarled and crooked owing to the annual grass fires. A medium sized Cedrela, or hard cigar-box wood, is found in isolated patches in the northern part of the Abeokuta and southern part of the Oyo province. The balsam-copaiba-tree is also very common in this zone in the North Benin, Onitsha and Ogoja provinces.

The forests of this zone are perhaps the least valuable from the financial point of view, chiefly owing to their geographical position and defective means of transport, but economically they are of great value to the agricultural community, both for their forest produce as well as their soil-preserving and rainfall-conserving properties. The chief timber areas are situated in the heavy rain forest and mixed deciduous forest areas, though a few have recently been taken up in the mangrove swamps.

As a minor, though important, development to the main forests are the evergreen hill forests, which find wide development in the northern part of the Jebu-ode, Ondo, Benin, Ogoja and Calabar provinces. On the whole, the species do not vary so much as might be expected, and in many cases it simply means a further distribution of certain evergreen trees beyond their zone of natural development, owing to suitable climatic conditions in these hills. For instance, the red ironwood appears next the mangrove swamp on the bank of the St. Barbara River, again in the evergreen forests near Calabar, and reappears in the hill forests of Oban, much further north. Probably the most typical trees of the hill forests are an unidentified species of gum-copal, as well as several species of Guttiferæ.

The fringing forests are found chiefly on the banks of the rivers in an area which is otherwise covered with the open deciduous or dry-zone formation. Two leguminous trees are most typical of this zone. Stray deciduous or evergreen trees from the other zones are also seen. Such forest is thick with a fair amount of undergrowth, and the trees form a close canopy. The fringes vary from a few yards to half a mile in width.

A further subsidiary form is found on the summits of the highest mountains, such as the Boji Hills, with their stunted satinwood trees, shrubs and grass. In some places there is yet another minor formation, that of the freshwater swamps. Some typical examples of these are found on the banks of the Calabar, Osse and Owenna Rivers. In most cases only one, or any how only a few species of trees are found, whereas in the major formations several hundred different species appear. The growth in these swamp formations, both mangrove and freshwater, is on the whole not so large as that of the evergreen forest. Again, the evergreen forest does not show such fine development or such height of tree as the mixed deciduous forests, though occasionally the greatest girth of bole is found in the evergreen forests.

[155]II. The Mahogany and Timber Industries.

According to Nigerian law, timber includes planks sawn for logs and trees hollowed out or shaped for any purpose whatever. The timber-working industry, then, is a wide one, covering really three distinct fields of activity, though one or more may be combined. First, there is the felling of mahogany chiefly, and other furniture-wood trees for export. In the second place, the native, and to a slight extent the European firms, cut timber for local use, mainly in the forest, such as planks, canoes and posts. Thirdly, there is the Government, which under the auspices of the Forestry Department chiefly, and to some extent under the Public Works Department, cuts timber of various kinds, chiefly Iroko, for railway buildings and road bridges.

Turning now first of all to the export industry, which is most important at the present time, though the local demand for timber will soon dwarf that of the former, there is a definite sequence of action necessary in embarking on this form of economic development.

As soon as a firm decides on timber-getting, an application (made out in triplicate) has to be sent in with good maps or plans of the area, which is applied for, to the Conservator of Forests of that circle. It is understood that the area in question has been thoroughly examined by the firm before the application is made. A fee of £3 in stamps as well as a banker’s guarantee of £400 for each area of 100 square miles is also necessary before the application can be considered. The species of tree to be cut should also be stated, as well as the names of the villages and chiefs occupying or living in or adjacent to the area. Owing to the time taken in making the fullest inquiries into the occupancy and other rights, as well as ascertaining the financial standing of the firm in question, it is usually several months before the applicant hears that the area has been granted.

Before this the applicant should also forward a confidential statement, stating exactly what capital there is available to develop the timber areas. An additional banker’s reference to the Crown Agents will save unnecessary delay in the granting of the area.

Before the notification of the grant of the area, the licence is made out in the Conservator’s office, for which a £5 stamp as well as three good maps are necessary. Roughly, an additional £2 10s. is required to satisfy the legal fees upon registration, which follows immediately after the execution of the licence by the licensee of the grantees. It should be especially noted that anyone acting on behalf of a firm should be in the possession of a registered power of attorney, enabling him to act in the fullest possible way for the applicant or company acquiring land rights. This power of attorney should be registered beforehand, otherwise another delay will ensue whilst this is being done.

As soon as the area is granted, the applicant should mark all boundaries[156] with the necessary marks, which also appear in the licence. Within six months after the granting of the area, work has to be begun. The first proceeding is to send in a list of trees, numbered serially from one upwards, stating the species, size (girth at 10 feet above ground), where situated, name of nearest village and chief occupying land in the vicinity, together with the amount of fees and royalties payable on the trees. The trees have been marked and numbered previous to the duplicate lists being sent in. It is usual to pay a cheque or bill for the fees and cash for the royalties, then one of the two lists sent in is returned to the sender marked “Permission granted.” Felling can now begin. On the whole, the general practice is to cut the trees down in the earlier months of the year and have nearly all completed by March or April. Logging, with a cross-cut saw or axe, and squaring with an axe and adze, follows as soon as the trees are felled, and, as it takes longer, continues afterwards right into May or June. Hauling begins as soon as sufficient logs are ready to be drawn and the hauling roads have been cleared. Usually different gangs haul to those employed on the tree-felling and squaring. Eighty or a hundred boys are lined up and haul on two ropes attached to the end of the log. The log, having been shaped at the end to allow easy hauling over the rollers or ground, is “snaked” along to the nearest waterside, river bank or creek. Here two timber-dogs are driven in the end for attaching the cane or rope to hold several together. In the smaller streams or creeks, single logs, or two joined together, float down to another station, where a bigger raft of 40 to 100 logs is made up. In a good many rivers the rise of the water takes place in July, and it is then that the largest number of logs float out. Another lesser rise for the most part, except in the largest, such as the Cross or Niger Rivers, occurs in October, when all logs possible are got out for that season.

Logs left by this last flood usually have to stay until the following year, when the river will rise again. Sometimes as many as three seasons elapse before it is possible to get out some logs. The higher reaches of the Owenna have an unenviable reputation in this respect. Several short rainy seasons following each other successively cause the same result. The Ijors are the chief “waterboys,” who contract to take logs down the creeks at 5s., 10s. or 15s. a log, according to distance and nature of the creek. The Ossiomo has also a bad name, owing to its swift current and the liability of losing the logs.

Most labour is engaged direct, though handed over to a contractor who is paid 1½d. to 1¾d. per foot of timber squared or logged brought to the nearest waterside. The labour, however, is paid by the European firm, which is entirely responsible for the payment.

The shipment of the logs is made at Koko, Warri or Forcados from Lagos and at Lagos itself, the first-named port taking the majority. Many firms have a branch store and office at this port, or another firm[157] ships logs for others not represented at a fixed charge per log. Export entries showing numbers of logs, size and value are presented to the Customs Department before shipment. Koko, which used to be quite free from the Teredo borer, is now unsafe for logs after a fortnight’s floating in the water there.

The shipping companies do not particularly desire logs as freight, owing to their weight and unwieldiness in handling. Space is left between them to some extent in the hold. The hatches have to be especially long to take the biggest logs. From Lagos, Forcados, Calabar, etc., a freight rate varying from 35s., 40s., to 45s.[2] per ton for 2¾, 3 and over 5-ton logs. Koko, on the other hand, is only 25s., with 10s. extra for primage. This is the same with the other freight rates.

During the voyage the logs gradually dry, and often by the time they are put into the timber yard of the brokers they are split or cracked. Only the best logs, 30 feet long and quite sound at the start, stand all the rough handling they get. Auction sales take place about once a fortnight in the busy season, though sales by private treaty take place occasionally. Logs can sometimes be sold ex quay too, though by far the most of the wood is sold by public auction. The inclusive charge of landing, stacking and selling at the dock is roughly 10 per cent. of the value of the log. In fact, it is quite a considerable item of expense, and often makes the difference between profit and loss on the smaller and lower-grade logs. All logs are sold by the superficial foot, i.e. one foot square, one inch thick “sale measure.” Sale measure obtains only in the mahogany trade for square logs, and is roughly 20 per cent. less than the actual cubical contents of the log. Round logs are measured and sold by extreme (full) measure. A wane of six inches or less is left on the squared logs, because it makes them less liable to crack and split at the corners, and also it saves a good deal of timber which would otherwise be wasted.

Liverpool is the best mahogany market, though fair prices are obtainable for good logs in London. Hamburg used to be the market for Gaboon wood, and on the whole new woods were better received than in the English market. As a rule, figured mahogany always commands a good price, whereas plain wood, with the exception of roey or counter-top timber, only fetches a moderate or low price, unless the market is understocked at the time. The best wood is obtained from the Ivory Coast, and the next best is Benin or Lagos wood. Sapeli wood is very heavy, and found a market chiefly in Germany. Cross River wood has yet to be shipped and proved, though samples there looked very good and even showed some figure. So far, only the leased areas have been spoken of. Now we return to the Reserves, where, however, permits to cut trees can only be obtained. Here leases are usually not granted. The rules with regard to replanting do not apply[158] in the same way, as all planting is in the hands of the Department. On the whole, stricter supervision may be exercised in the Reserves than on leased areas. Although a firm has no lease, the security of tenure for cutting the trees would be at least as good as under a lease. No other firm would be in the same position to fell and extract timber as the first one to whom permission was granted. The Government would not allow any other amounts of trees to be felled that would injure the working of the forest by the first applicant.

Local felling is conducted by one or two firms in their areas, which were in the first instance obtained for export timber. For the most part, however, the natives or native foreigners fell various kinds of trees such as Iroko, Chlorophora excelsa, Owussu, Sarcocephalus esculentus, Ume, Pterocarpus soyauxii and Pterocarpus Osun, Edat, Saccoglottis Gabunensis. Nearly half the permits issued are for Iroko, the main building timber of the Yoruba and Benin and Ibo countries. The Camwoods or Barwoods are felled next to obtain the brilliant red heartwood, chiefly from the roots, but also from the stem. A dyewood which produces a fast colour is obtained by rubbing a small pointed section on a flattish piece of the same wood. A yellow dyewood is obtained from Anyeran Afrormosia laxiflora.

The canoe-making industry absorbs a large number of trees. The native, chiefly Ijor, chooses the tree with great care as to straightness of stem and length of bole. It is felled near a river bank or otherwise reasonably accessible place. First of all two sides are flattened parallel to each other; at the same time the length of the canoe is chosen and the tree bole cut off at the required length. A narrow groove about half the depth of the diameter of the log is now made with small axes and an adzelike instrument. The log is then shaped externally like a canoe, especially both bow and stern. Next, more wood is cut away on the inside and some pieces of wood stuck across to keep the canoe open. A shelter is put over it during a hot day. As soon as the requisite amount has been cut out, dry palm branches are placed all round the canoe outside on the ground; longer cross pieces are fixed over the canoe of the required length for thwarts when the canoe is finished. Long stakes are driven into the ground opposite each of these on each side of the canoe, so that the natives can obtain a strong leverage over the canoe. Fire is now put to the palms, beginning with the bow of the canoe. The heat makes the wood expand and thus opens the canoe; at the same time the natives pull down the stakes at the side of the canoe and press the cross pieces into their places. This extends gradually the whole length of the canoe in the course of the day, which is the most strenuous of all, as upon the energy and care exercised on this day in making the canoe open out evenly in its entire length and the same amount each side depends its future success in the water. It may turn out lopsided, or, as is often[159] the case, a hole may appear in the middle of the stern end, owing to the centre of the tree having been rather old and rotten. This can be covered over, and is often above the waterline.

Canoes vary in size from the Oguta canoe, in which the paddler has to keep one foot in the water to balance the canoe, to the twelve-puncheon canoe of the big traders. This last will have a great hollow dug out fully 6 feet deep at the stern end and over 60 feet long.

The sawyers cut the tree all round, fell it, and then cut it into 12-feet length logs, as far as the bole allows. The huge branches are left untouched. A large pit is dug quite close to the logs, and one by one they are placed over and sawn, first two sides and then into three large planks; finally these are cut into 12-inch planks one inch thick. Most of the work is done within four miles of the railway line or within twenty miles of a large town, such as Jebu-ode, Ife, Ibadan, Abeokuta. Truck loads of this timber may be seen at Ilugun or Ogunshileh, on the Nigerian Railway.

Permits are also issued for the making of smaller articles, such as verandah posts, culled out of a guttiferous tree; sleepers, sawn from Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa); sword-sheaths, made from Ogohen (Musanga Smithii); mortars, cut from Apa (Afzelia Africana); pestles, fashioned out of Eba (Lophira procera).

The dyewood industry in itself is chiefly developed on the banks of the Cross River. The trees are felled in the Oban forests, allowed to lie a year or two, then cut up into long 3- to 4-inch irregular-shaped scantling or poles. These are sold chiefly in the Oban market, after which they are cut into small sections. Women take these up and make lozenge-shaped bricks about a foot long in the greatest length. These are sold at 6d. each.

Under Government auspices, one of the first enterprises was the sawmill at Etehetem. A very hard redwood, termed Apassa by the Efiks (Mimusops lacera), and also mahogany (Ochrocarpus Africanus) were cut. Owing to the difficulty of expansion and the increasing cost of the logs, the plant is to be moved elsewhere. The railway had a small plant at Han, where timber and sleepers were cut for the Baro Kano line. At Ebuttemetta the railway also have a small mill for cutting chiefly Iroko, Apa, and a little redwood.

Of the various firms, Messrs. McIver had a small mill in Lagos, chiefly for sawing up mahogany logs not worth shipping to England. Later, in 1909, Messrs. Miller Brothers built a mill at Koko town; Agba (Copaifera sp.?) as well as mahogany logs have been cut; Ebbe and Obiache, and Obechi (Triplochiton Nigericum), the last-named being a good whitewood.

The Anglo-French Company have started a plant near Oron Eastern Circle to cut sleepers out of mangrove wood, Lagenaria and Rhizophora.

[160]Lastly, the Government have started a new mill at Apapa, near Lagos, for cutting logs obtained near Akilla, on the Oni River, in the Abeokuta province, and the planing, grooving and recutting is done in connection with the Public Works yards and furniture-making establishment in Lagos.

The Akilla work is run entirely by the Forestry Department. Trees are felled, cut into logs and brought to the waterside; then, rafted with others, floated in kerosine tins on lighter wood to Apapa. A regular rate is charged per cubic foot. Work was started in August 1914, and already several thousand logs have been delivered at Apapa.

III. The Permanent Forests or Forest Reserves.

In the main, all Forest Reserves become the permanent forests of a country. So far as Nigeria, for instance, is concerned, certain definite and well-defined portions of the original forests have been set aside, by agreement with the natives, as Forest Reserves. If these areas had not been set aside, they would have been liable to destruction under the form of shifting cultivation which the local people practise. For instance, at Olokemeji there are several thousand acres in the middle of the Reserve which were cleared some years ago and have not yet grown up. This would have been the fate of the rest of the forest if it had not definitely been placed under the care and protection of the Forest Department. The same applies to other areas scattered over the country.

It is somewhat hard to define the meaning of a Reserve. Essentially it is an area permanently set aside for the production of timber or other forest produce. In many cases, however, the trees or the forests have to be preserved in the interests of the climatic conditions of the locality. If it is found that by cutting down a forest the rainfall decreases every year, the springs dry up, and the land becomes covered with grass, where actual grass fires kill all young vegetation and even hinder farming operations, then the forest must be reserved. To take some examples: In the colony of Sierra Leone there is a Peninsular Mountain Forest, a large and valuable Reserve, 80 per cent. of which is covered with red ironwood, Lophira procera. Then in the Protectorate there are the Kambui Hills, Kennema, then Nimmini, and the Loma Mountain Reserve. In the colony and Protectorate of the Gold Coast there is the Dunkwah Reserve. Some of the most improved reserves in the southern province of Nigeria are in the Western Circle. There are Olokemeji, Mamu, Ilaro, Oshun, Owenna and Ondo Reserves. Again, in the Central Circle there are the Okumu, Obagie, Gilli-gilli, the Uhi, and the Ogba Forests.

In the Eastern Circle there are the Oban, Ikrigon and Ajasso Reserves, in all aggregating about 2,000 square miles.

Contrary to the usual idea, we have seen that a Forest Reserve is[161] in reality only a permanent forest, which is primarily maintained for the definite production of some forest or other product. It cannot be too much emphasized that it is definitely set aside to be used wisely; and for all the trees taken, suitable replanting operations are undertaken by the Forest Department. The name “Reserve” is in fact rather a misnomer. In the early stages of a forest administration it is convenient to talk about Forest Reserves as distinct from the rest of the country, which is usually covered with forest and termed “unreserved” forest. It may, later on, become agricultural land; it may also be reserved, in which case it becomes a Forest Reserve or one of the permanent forests of the country. The main point to be observed with a Reserve is that it is primarily for use, and not that the timber is to be reserved and not to be utilized by the general public. Even in those cases where the local demands of the people are great and have to be satisfied first, before any outside timber exporter is allowed to work the forest, it is utilized to the greatest extent compatible with its maintaining a yearly permanent output of timber or other forest product. Permanency of output is the watchword, and strict utilization of the increment-bearing capacity of the forest each year. The increment is of course the amount which each tree grows each year. This amount, added together over the whole area, makes up the quantity which may be felled, on the proportional area during the rotation, in any one year. Thus, to give a concrete example: If an area is 100 square miles in extent, and the rotation is 100 years, then one-hundredth of that area, or one square mile, may be cut over in one year; also, if the sum of the growth amounts to 40 cubic feet per acre per year, this means to say that an annual cut of 25,600 cubic feet can be made each year over one square mile of the area, in the case of a clear felling of all the trees, or spread over an area of 10 square miles in the form of a slight thinning of the trees. In the Temperate Zone, on moderate soil, 40 cubic feet of timber per annum is a good yield, so that in the Tropics we may expect a yield of quite double this amount; therefore it will be seen how readily the forest can grow and how much timber can be obtained permanently from the Permanent Forests or Reserves.

Another great advantage of the Permanent Forest or Forest Reserve, compared with the ordinary leased areas, is the fact that the planting is done by the Forest Department and not by the leaseholder. In an ordinary leased area this planting is a considerable source of expenditure and worry to the leaseholder, and even then satisfactory results are hard to be obtained. He is continually being reminded of his planting duties by the Forest Department, and he is continually striving to keep up the proportionate amount of planting, i.e. 24 trees for every tree felled, and this is by no means easy to attain. Although the annual leaseholder working in a Forest Reserve may be under[162] greater supervision and more stringent forest regulations than in the ordinary leased areas, on the whole his prospects of getting out greater quantities of timber more expeditiously and cheaply are much greater than in the ordinary areas.

Particularizing some of the great concrete objects for which reserve is made:

Firstly, the permanent supplies of timber of all kinds, with a view to turning out approximately the same quantity year after year in perpetuity—in fact, if anything, gradually increasing the output year after year. This means to say that, although the forest is cut down, it is replaced at the same rate at which it is cut down. Putting it in another way, there must be as many blocks, or portions or actual “stands” in the forest as represent the number of years which elapse between the time a tree is planted and the time it is cut down. This period is known to foresters as “the rotation,” and in northern temperate countries, for Coniferous trees the time is usually reckoned at about 80 years. In the tropics, with mahogany, Iroko and other timbers, it may be only necessary to allow 60 years, or perhaps on very poor ground 100 years. In the case of teak in Burma, a rotation between 80 and 100 years is perhaps about sufficient to enable merchantable timber to be produced. Putting it in another way, in the forest, in order to have the permanent yield, there must be sufficient trees of each girth class, so that when the largest, say those over 12 feet in girth, are cut down, there must be sufficient of those between 10 and 12 feet, which will grow during a 10-year period (in which they are cut) from 10 feet to 12 feet in girth. At the present time it has been found convenient to classify each class as “under 2 feet, 2 to 4 feet, 4 to 6 feet, 6 to 8 feet, 8 to 10 feet, 10 to 12 feet, and over 12 feet.” The object of this is to clear away, or have cut, all those trees over 12 feet in girth. This makes room for younger, quicker-growing timber. Although, under the Nigerian Forest Law, the girth of mahogany has been reduced to 11 feet, and in some districts to 10 feet, eventually, as the older and more unremunerative slower-growing trees are cut down, it will be possible to reduce the girth still further. To put this question of the permanent yield in yet another way: All the trees from one year old, or from the smallest size to those over 12 feet in girth, represent what we may call the forest capital. Now, the object of the rotation is only to take the interest on this capital; that is to say, the amount which grows on all the trees over the whole area for one year. It would, however, not do to clip off little pieces from each tree over the whole area, as they would be quite useless as timber. Therefore this amount is calculated out as so many cubic feet per annum, or so many trees above a girth of 12 feet or 11 feet, or whatever the girth limit may be, and this amount, either in cubic feet or in the number of trees, is allowed to be cut down each year. Then we know[163] that year after year this amount can be cut down again, and as the soil and other conditions improve and the rate of reproduction is hastened by proper cultural methods in improving the soil, by draining and other methods of amelioration, still larger results may be obtained.

Fig. 29.—The Chief Conservator of Forests’ House, with five-year-old Albizzia Lebbek standing beside it.

Fig. 30.—Three Capsules of Mahogany (Khaya grandis Ivoriensis and Punchii), from banks of Owena River.

Fig. 31.—Capsules of three Species of Entandrophragma: E. Macrophyllum, the largest; E. utilis, the next in size; and E. cylindricum, the smallest.

To face p. 162.

Secondly, the object of these Reserves is to produce firewood, more especially in the neighbourhood of large towns; in fact, already in several cases, firewood plantations or Reserves have been made, such as those at Ibadan and on the sandy flats near Lagos. In these cases, trees five, seven or ten years old are large enough for that purpose, more especially of the following species, Cassia Siamia, or Albizzia Brownii.

Thirdly, to provide grazing land, more especially in the more northern part of Nigeria, where the object is to divide up the area, so that so many cattle may graze on each area in different years, or for different periods of the year, so as to give the pasture and small trees which may be growing a chance to revive and grow again. By this means the pasture is improved and made of permanent value. It is also possible under this system to undertake permanent improvements in these large pastures by a certain amount of drainage in the lower parts, and fire protection in the upper and higher parts. In this way the cattle obtain a better pasturage and reach maturity all the quicker. In times of bad season, too, some of the closed areas may be opened for pasturage, thus ensuring that the head of cattle may not be allowed to go down owing to death due to drought or lack of pasture. In this way the grazing reserve acts as a kind of insurance against loss of stock in bad seasons of no rainfall.

Fourthly, the production of oil seeds and nuts, such as the Oil Bean, Pentaclethra macrophylla, or the African Wood Oil-nut, Ricinodendron Africanus. It may also be the production of Cola nuts, which thrive in the forests in the shade, or in the partial shade, of other forest trees, and the Cacao Bean, which also, in certain localities, should stand in the partial shade of forest trees, more especially in the dry season.

Fifthly, the production of fibres, such as that from the tree known as Eso, Firmiana Barteri, the bark of which is used for making rope. Then there are the various creepers, such as Kakoba, Entada scandens, which is also used for making rope by the Hausa and Yoruba, more especially fly-switches by the Benin natives. Then there are the canes, such as Egbe, used for roofing amongst the Yorubas and Okakan, Eremospatha sp. (large Benin rattan), and Ikan, Eremospatha macrocarpa (small Benin rattan), also used for making rope, and a kind of string which both the Benin and Jekii natives use for tying lath pieces together in house-building and in making coverings for their canoes.

Sixthly, the production of domestic articles, such as sponges,[164] Luffa Soudanica, or wrapping-leaves for food, termed Ewayon by the Yorubas, or thatching laths, Ebe by the Benin natives, and the roofing canes termed Itebe by the Yorubas.

Seventhly, the production of medicinal plants, such as those for native Ju-ju; and some, such as Cassia occidentalis, Cassia fistula, also useful to Europeans.

The main difference between the beautiful, untouched existing forests and a Forest Reserve is chiefly in the matter of management. In the unreserved forests a lease may be granted for five or seven years, and the leaseholder may fell a great number of trees, such as mahogany, Iroko, etc. At the same time there is nothing to hinder the natives or original occupier or user of the land from clearing the greater part of the forest, except the protected trees, and making farms throughout the area; thus, in fact, gradually hindering, or at least reducing, the possible output of timber from that area. No new seedlings come up in these areas which are farmed, and, in fact, the fires which are made in the course of clearing the land for farming operations kill the young growth of all kinds. In reality, in a Forest Reserve there is more permanency with regard to the output of timber than in the original forest; there is, in fact, absolute permanency. Although no actual lease may be granted for a period of several years in a Forest Reserve, yet, as a matter of fact and usual experience, after a year’s working it would be quite unlikely for a Forest Department to stop the timber merchant from working the forest again, or rather from allowing him much the same number of trees as he had in the former year, because not only would the revenue from the forest suffer, but timber experience would have to be gained with another firm, which means a loss of time as well as revenue. Thus, in the ordinary way it is more satisfactory to have the same firm working in that locality year after year, provided they pay an adequate price for all the timber trees which they have. They can then invest the proper amount of capital in plant and hauling appliances, and thus make a greater profit and exploit the forest to better advantage than if a fresh firm came in year after year.

To give a more concrete idea of what these areas mean, we will take it that on the average there are only 50 trees per acre which are of some value or another, either for timber for local use or for export, and taking the average rate of fee at only 4s. per tree (it should be noted that mahogany and so on are rated at £2 16s. per tree), it will be seen that the value of these forests is in all £12,800,000. This sounds a great deal, but when it is considered what a very large number of trees can now be utilized, either locally, in the form of planks and scantlings, and joists for posts, not to speak of all the various kinds of mahogany, Iroko, walnut, ebony and other substitutes which can be used for export, it will be seen that this value is none too great; in fact,[165] to the timber leaseholder they would be worth at least ten times as much. Of course, in this calculation all sizes of trees above a girth of 4 feet are considered, for the sake of making the valuation as complete as possible. Naturally, the smaller girth trees would not immediately be utilized, but when we are totalling up the amount of forest or wood capital involved in the valuation, it is necessary to include them and put a value on them. If the necessity arose, even they could also be utilized and would at least bring in the amount of the lowest valuation per tree.

The Forest Reserves stand also in a special position to the local people, for, after all, these Reserves formed originally part of the forest from which were supplied all the major wants of the native, such as timber, firewood, oil nuts and seeds, fibres, domestic articles and medicinal plants; therefore, whatever the main lines of protection of a good forest, the needs of the people of that locality must have the first consideration. After these wants have been fully supplied, then any surplus in the way of timber or other commercial products can be sold or exported elsewhere. This leads us to consider the fact that a Permanent Forest or Forest Reserve leads to a permanent source of revenue from that particular forest. Owing to the fact that there is the permanent yield of timber established in that area, it means that permanent money is being obtained from those trees and being brought into the Treasury as part of the permanent revenue of the country. If there is any increase, owing to the increased value of the timber trees thus gained—and the more stability there is, the better for the country—better arrangements can be made with regard to the reproduction of the forests. If there is a greater revenue being obtained from the forests, even more money can be justly expended by the Forest Department for the buying of better implements for planting and the Forest Station generally, for the making of permanent improvements in the forests, such as draining, road-making and fire protection. If these forests are not protected and unreserved, then in the course of time they must completely disappear, owing to the fact that man is so constituted that if he sees land, which may or may not be suitable for agriculture, covered with trees, he naturally thinks it would be better to cut these down and see what agricultural crop will grow there, regardless of the fact that there may already exist, or he may have cleared, fifteen times as much land as he requires for farming operations each year.

In addition to all the above, there are the indirect effects of forests, which have been considered in the section dealing with the relation between Agriculture and Forestry. On the whole, it is better for the Central Government or Federal Government to manage the Forest Reserves, as by that means there is greater impartiality in their management and more stability and continuity in the Forest policy adopted[166] towards them. In each case, however, it is essential to have either co-opted or elected representatives of the locality, either by the chiefs or by representatives of the people, so that the wishes and needs of the locality may be thoroughly considered.

Lastly, and by no means the least important feature of the Forest Reserve, is the æsthetic view. In the regions of Permanent Forests, healthier localities are afforded for the people, and they are also prettier and more pleasant. This applies not only to temperate-zone forests, but also to tropical forests. It is a well-known fact also that where there are permanent forests the value of the other land in that locality is always rated higher, and is worth more for leasing if adequately covered with a sufficient proportion of forest.

IV. Afforestation in Nigeria.

The Forest Department, not being content with obtaining a revenue out of the forests from the trees cut down for export or for local use, have spent and are spending several thousands of pounds each year in planting valuable forest trees. Going back historically before the time when the Forest Department had a sub-head in the estimates for “Labour for Plantations” or “Teak Plantations” or “Upkeep and Improvement of Forest Reserves,” we had the annual planting of many tens of thousands of mahogany-trees by the timber leaseholder. The whole of this was chiefly done in the Benin district of the Benin province. Although this transplanting of self-sown mahogany-trees into better situations near timber camps, or at the side of falling roads and into the spaces left by the fallen mahogany-trees, was by no means carried out very systematically or under very expert planters, the results are all the more creditable to those who so early started to reproduce the forests. It is most interesting to see in different parts on the banks of the Osse River young thrifty plantations now nearly twenty years old and nearly 30 feet high. In a similar way in the forest there are to be seen large numbers of somewhat smaller sized mahoganies growing singly or in groups, only needing a certain amount of clearing and tending to prevent their being overgrown by other forest trees. Scattered though they are throughout the forest, it is not too much to say that the prospective younger aged forest will be more valuable than that which originally stood in its place.

Easier to find, though in some way less attractive to look at, are the regularly made mahogany plantations of the Forest Department. In addition to isolated specimen trees which are found in the forest Arboretums at Calabar, Degema, Benin City and Olokemeji, several thriving plantations are found near Benin City in the Ogba and Obagie Reserves, in the Ilaro, Mamu and Olokemeji Reserves. In the last-named are the most extensive areas of all, and also, despite[167] many failures owing to experiments on bad soil and seasons of extreme drought, the growth of the trees gives the greatest promise of mature trees, or at any rate merchantable trees, being grown in a comparatively short period. Plantations have also been made at Awka, Udi, Okwoga and Ida.

Already on the old town site of Ijaiye, mahoganies have been seen over 6 feet in girth which have grown up from self-sown seedlings within a period of about sixty years. The soil in this locality is none too good, and the rainfall on the average certainly does not exceed 50 inches per annum. Near 47 Benin villages small communal plantations of mahogany have been made.

All the mahoganies apparently, especially when grown in “pure” plantations, are attacked by a leading-shoot borer, which so weakens the leading shoot as to make it fall off, and the tree subsequently grows with two leaders. Later on this forms a large fork in the tree, which, when the time comes for felling, is by no means to be despised, forming as it does usually a very good “curl.” In other respects it is disadvantageous in reducing the length of the single straight bole. In this manner it has the effect of reducing the number of logs of long length and even shape and large size that can be obtained in one tree. In many cases, a log can be cut above from each limb forming the fork; but of course these are both much smaller than those from the bole, and are usually not nearly so straight, and one or other of the limbs is liable to be broken when the tree is felled. In the original forest only isolated trees are attacked by this leading-shoot borer, whereas in a plantation nearly all the trees suffer by its depredations.

Various species are being tried for admixture with the mahogany in order to hinder the spread of the attacks. At Olokemeji there is a mahogany plantation largely interplanted with two species of Mimusops multinervis and Mimusops Elengi. So far this appears most suitable, as the soil is kept thoroughly covered by the dense shade cast by the Mimusops, and there is a very considerable space between each mahogany-tree. However, the mahogany grows faster than the Mimusops, so that after the first few years it does not have so much effect. Even so, it tends to keep the bole of the mahogany clean and the state of the soil in mechanical and physical condition such as to be most conducive to the growth of mahogany.

A mixture occasionally seen in nature has yet to be copied—that of mahogany and Chewstick (Anogeissus leiocarpus). To some extent it is seen at Olokemeji, where the self-sown seedlings have come up in a mahogany plantation, but of course they were rather too late to effect the result, i.e. protecting the mahogany from the leading-shoot borer. At Ilaro a most typical Mahogany Reserve, an isolated plantation made amongst secondary growth, has more than held its own with little or no tending after the first two years, and yet the trees[168] overtop all the surrounding growth. In some cases, both at Olokemeji and Mamu, either self-sown or planted Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa) is found growing amongst the mahogany. Owing to the attacks of the coccus on the Iroko hindering its height growth, it has not had as beneficial an effect as might have been expected. Transplanting self-sown trees from an overshaded locality in the forest, where they usually first appear in a more open locality, has proved on the whole most successful. Again, transplanting self-sown seedlings scarcely one year old from an overshaded locality into one with more light has accelerated the growth of the seedlings, preventing them being killed by the excessive shade, and at much less cost has thus established a small plantation in the Benin forests.

With the collection and planting of the seeds from the teak-trees originally planted about 1889 in the Ebuttemetta garden, a new area opened in the afforestation of Nigeria. Seedlings developed rapidly, and were found to grow at least 10 if not 18 feet in the first year. Although not always keeping up this promise of exceedingly rapid growth, more especially in height, the teak bids fair to become, as in Burma so in Nigeria, the most valuable of all trees. On the whole it has been by far the most extensively planted tree of any in Nigeria, excepting that in the case of mahogany many more have been planted in the Central Circle. Teak plantations are now found as widely apart as on the banks of the Cross River near Ikom, Inkum, Ndeh and Ikrigon amongst the historic stones, and in the Arboretum at Calabar. Near Ndeh, for over a quarter of a mile the river bank is quite enlivened by the large and showy leaves as well as the tall, thin stem of the teak. To a lesser extent, though appearing more picturesque, is the riverside plantation on the opposite bank just below Abragba. In a district with a rainfall of about 60 inches and a deep sand alluvial soil, the teak so far has proved quite at home in the Cross River districts of the Eastern Circle. Even amongst the thickly growing grass at Ikrigon they have survived after coming up from seeds sown at stake, and bid fair to become an established tree of that locality.

Teak has also found a place in the plantation near Mpot and the Oban Reserve. Going over now to the Central Circle, we have Oria, situated near the right bank of the Niger in the Benin province, with its rapidly growing teak plantations. Again choosing a local climate similar to that where teak is found has so far proved it to be a most suitable tree for this locality. Many other trees do not thrive or attain much size near here, so that the teak is all the more valuable for that reason. Near Benin itself, with its heavier rainfall and comparatively approximate to the sea (about 45 miles), it is doubtful if teak will do so well. Even so, growing more slowly, it would prove an additional most valuable tree to those already found growing in the district from which timber has already been obtained.

[169]Again, in the Western Circle the very largest teak plantations are found: even from the railway carriage window you get an impression of the extent of these just before reaching the Eruwa Road station, and again just after leaving Olokemeji station, between 85 and 90 miles from Lagos respectively. Despite one or two fires, trees at Eruwa Road show quite average growth for the Southern Provinces of Nigeria. In seven years the trees had reached a girth of over 12 inches and a height of over 25 feet. Happily, they were not fruiting so profusely as at Olokemeji. This plantation is all the more interesting in that it was made primarily for the use of the Railway Administration to supply teak timber for sleepers and constructional work.

On closer inspection it will be seen that the Olokemeji plantations nearest the railway comprise six “falls,” “stands,” or “compartments” of 25 acres each, adjoining each other. Although the trees everywhere have not grown as well as on the better soil, these are far and away the largest plantations of any in Nigeria. Each “stand” is separated from the next by a broad ride and top and bottom by a broad road. Near by these are another two compartments of 25 acres each, though neither of these is entirely filled with teak, as also the first one in the other series. Nearer the bungalows there are the first made plantations of 1908, thriving, yet growing on the poor laterite soil. These stretch away nearly half a mile into the open deciduous forests at the back. What a strange contrast is presented in the dense, close growth of the teak plantation, with its soil covering of decaying and large brown leaves of the teak, compared to the stunted growth of Red Ironwood, small Bauhinia, some Paradaniellas and a few gnarled oak-like Shea Butter Trees! Such teak plantations open up a long vista of future developments in the conversion of the poor dry-zone vegetation into forests of valuable trees, both with and without extensive permanent improvements of the soil and subsoil. Even the large raceme-like clusters of the flowers, almost covering the whole of the teak trees in April and May, are not to be despised for improving the looks of a grassy lawn near a bungalow. A glimpse through the tall Terminalias on both sides of the Ogun, just before the curve is reached at Olokemeji village, reveals yet another teak plantation on the lower slopes of the easternmost of the two hills. Olokemeji means the “man of, or owner of, two hills” (oke means a hill, and meji means two, in Yoruba). Again, still further along in the valley of the stream, near the station, are some other older teak plantations from the years 1910, 1911. Here there is yet a different contrast. The broad, wide masses of the teak plantation are still on one side rather overshadowed towards the hillside by the giants of the mixed deciduous forests, such as the cotton-tree (Eriodendron Orientale) and Sterculia cordifolia and ebony (Diospyros mespiliformis). However, later on the teak, growing on better soil than is found in[170] many parts of the Olokemeji Reserve, will no doubt equal it, if not surpass it.

Further to the south, in the Ilaro Reserve, teak has not proved to be so much at home; although growing well the first year or so, the rate of growth since then has been distinctly disappointing. The soil may have been too damp, and the rainfall of the locality may be a little high, and perhaps later on it may be proved that it can be grown on the higher land at a profit.

Further eastward and further northward, in the Mamu Reserve, the teak has grown as well, if not better than up the Cross River. Trees five years old have reached a girth of 24 inches and a height of 35 feet; with its good soil and comparatively high rainfall, probably rather more than 60 inches, Mamu bids fair to be one of the homes of teak in Africa. The older plantations on the river bank, some three miles away from those on the side of the Ibadan-Jebu-ode Road, have done nearly as well as those standing on inferior soil. So far the only damage done to any of the trees anywhere is that caused by a mistletoe-like parasite termed Afoma by the Yorubas, and known botanically as Polystachys odorata. However, only isolated trees having been attacked both at Olokemeji and Mamu, it is not difficult to combat its presence by cutting the trees down and burning the parasite. Still further north, on the bank of the Ogun just above the bridge on the Oyo-Iseyin Road, is yet another teak plantation. This was mainly formed by many of the seedlings in the nursery not being transplanted in time and being allowed to grow up altogether unthinned. Teak, however, forms such very persistent side branches, and has such a tendency to flower and fruit early in its existence, that only helps it to form a clean straight bole and retards the period of flowering by being planted close together. Also, nearly 5 per cent. of all the stems have a tendency to bend over and form stronger side branches than a leader, and have, in fact, rather a more shrub-like habit than that of a tree. Again, quite 1 per cent. grow very slowly right from the beginning and thus sooner or later get suppressed. For these reasons, then, more are required right from the beginning in order to form a full crop of clean-boled timber.

In the Ondo Circle there are some teak at Awshun, where, owing to rather a high rainfall and somewhat low-lying ground, the trees have not grown so very fast after the first year.

In addition to isolated specimens over twelve years old in the Olokemeji Arboretum region, the oldest trees of all are found in the Ebuttemetta gardens near Lagos. These trees are nearly thirty years of age, and show a girth of about 6 feet. By no means growing on good soil, or in a suitable locality either with regard to elevation or the close proximity to the lagoon and the sea, useful for the best growth of teak, they do not at all show the possible limits of growth of this tree. Already[171] sample sections have been cut from one or two of these trees and reported on most favourably by the Railway Administration. Similar samples have been sent to the Imperial Institute for exhibition purposes. In a short time the first thinnings of the plantations will take place, and it will be possible to see for what purpose they are most suitable. At any rate, it is a termite-proof wood, and despite the fact that the white ants often attack the growing tree, they usually eat only the outer bark, leaving the tree quite intact and alive.

In all, about 300 acres have been planted with teak, and even at the low valuation of the cost of making them they are worth at least £45,000. In this case a nominal value of only 3s. per cubic foot is assumed. As has proved the case in Burma, probably on the best soils only a period of eighty years will have to elapse before the final filling of the trees is made on the better classes of soil, and one of a hundred on the poorer soils. At approximately regular intervals of every ten years after the first ten or fifteen have elapsed from the date of the making of the plantation, thinnings are made. With each succeeding period the trees cut out are of larger size, and thus of increasing value with each decade. These returns soon more than cover the cost of planting, and assume greater and greater proportion towards the end of the rotation.

Another tree with which a considerable amount of work has been done is the Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa). Here, despite many disappointing results, care and attention show that this tree is capable of reproducing itself in a comparatively short period. Beyond many specimens in the Arboretum at Olokemeji, a whole plantation was made by the Railway between that place and Eruwa Road. Seedlings come up in large numbers from fresh seed sown in a nursery. In fact, sometimes, as at Olokemeji, they have appeared thicker than grass. Subsequently, when transplanted, many thousands died, the roots being apparently unable to quickly adjust themselves to new surroundings and grow again before the leaves have transpired nearly all the moisture from the plant, and thus quite withered and dried it up. However, those which have survived show fair growth, even on poor laterite soil. This soil, of course, is quite unsuited, and certainly one of the poorest mediums in which to plant Iroko.

Natural regeneration or the sowing of seeds at stake seems to be the best method, as we have in nearly all the Reserves large numbers of young Iroko seedlings of all ages and sizes coming up. In that connection one of the most instructive Forest Reserves is that of Ikrigon, where the Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa) is the most prevalent tree. Here, where most of the land has been farmed at one time or another and where the rainfall on the whole is sufficient to induce a good forest growth, the Iroko has tended to increase in numbers all through this part of the country. It may also be said, of course, that[172] the natives have directly helped in this process, by leaving some of the less straight and more branched Iroko-trees standing. They have used the best for canoe-making. In this manner seed-bearing trees have been available, and with part of the ground having been cleared for farms, the conditions have been most suitable for the reproduction of the tree. Subsequently the farms have been abandoned and the young trees have grown up amongst the weeds, creepers, and other inferior tree species, such as Albizzia, just according sufficient shade and protection for the young Irokos, and yet not too dense or thick to prevent them from sooner or later emerging and overgrowing the rest of the trees. Although, of course, many trees growing up under these conditions branch somewhat low down, they do not suffer nearly to the same extent, and sometimes not at all, from the attacks of the leaf coccus. This has two effects: not only does it not hinder and retard the sapling’s growth, but also all the sooner it reaches the higher zone or greater distance from the ground (as far as its upper foliage is concerned), so that these attacks do not occur. Again, the competition of the various weeds, Albizzias, creepers, etc., has the effect of so stimulating the growth of the young Iroko that in such positions it reaches a much greater height in a quicker time than when planted in pure plantations. From numerous observations it appears that after the first year the height growth may exceed 6 feet in one season. Even later this is kept up, and if the rest of the forest growth remains comparatively thick, no side branches can be formed on the bole of the Iroko, so that clean-stemmed trees are the result. As it gets older the Iroko stands less shade, and thus any small branches which do form are soon killed by the surrounding trees. Thus it is seen how we find these very straight, long-boled Irokos in the forests. Again, too, it is not very expensive, and at least much cheaper, to undertake partial cleaning and pruning amongst the self-sown Iroko-trees, especially to eliminate forks low down in the stem. Various experiments undertaken in the Ikrigon, Olokemeji and Mamu Reserves showed how quickly the sapling Irokos respond to this treatment. In some cases, trees only 2 inches in diameter and forked have reached nearly 4 inches in diameter and nearly doubled in height in one year. Another advantageous feature of the Iroko is the rapid, satisfactory, and smooth way in which the occlusion of the wounds made by pruning takes place. Even in the case of a very crooked tree covered with several branches, in fact almost forming a crown, these may be marked but not all cut until the following year. Surfaces of less than 2 inches will be nearly occluded over, and a tendency of the tree towards a crown will be almost obliterated at that point and be forming much higher up the tree.

Apparently, the more northward the tree is found the less liable it is to attack by the leaf coccus. Whilst it is found in the Olokemeji,[173] Ilaro and Mamu Reserve, it is less frequent in the Ikrigon Reserve. In the Sokode it was quite unknown. This last-named place is in Togo, and the plantation is situated in a latitude of over 9° North.

In the Ilaro and to a lesser extent in the Mamu Reserve it has been remarkable how rapidly the Iroko increases in girth when given plenty of space after being freed from the surrounding forest trees. In these trees, when showing a girth of from 4 to 8 feet, the diameter increment is most rapid. In most cases it averages over 6 inches in girth, and in one case at Ilaro it was as much as 11 inches in one year. This rapid growth in girth is all the more valuable as the trees of this size growing in the high forest have usually nearly completed their height growth. Thus the bole is comparatively long and clean, and the extra growth is put on evenly all the way up, tending to make it more cylindrical than before.

With the protection of the forests alone as Forest Reserve both in the evergreen and mixed deciduous forest zone, not only are many Iroko-trees preserved and allowed to grow to their full size, but also large numbers of self-sown seedlings come up in the abandoned ground and augment the value of the forests. This is an additional reason why the farming in a Reserve cannot be continued for any length of time. The old farms become more and more filled up with valuable young Iroko-trees, which would be at any rate damaged, if not killed, by the farming operations.

Even without taking into consideration the number of planted trees, the Forest Department has practically guaranteed certain future quantities of Iroko timber in the number of small trees which have been preserved and the potential value of the little ones grown up since the Reserves were made. Only in one part of the country is this anything like the case, and that is in the Ahoada district, where the natives use the Iroko-tree as a boundary mark between the different village lands and also between many farms. To a minor extent this can be seen in the Onitsha district, where the Iroko-trees have been preserved inside the villages, thus giving them the appearance of being the woods of the country while the rest of the land is bare. It is, however, just the reverse. They form the towns and villages amongst the trees, which are thus preserved from the axe and fire of the local farmer. Despite the fact that a fair number of large oversized Irokos have been cut each year in the Olokemeji Reserve, there are many more of the smaller size now coming on than were in existence when the first fellings took place.

Another tree which has received a considerable amount of attention is the Cigar-box Cedar (Cedrela odorata), and to a lesser extent the Toon (Cedrela Toona). Although both are exotic trees, the former especially shows very quick growth. Despite the unevenness with which it is liable to come up from seed, the rapid growth of the[174] tree soon compensates for this disadvantage. In three or four years it may be from 18 to 24 feet high and 8 to 16 inches in girth. Both the largest individual specimens as well as plantations are found in the Olokemeji forest as well.

More in place in the firewood plantations near Lagos and Ibadan is the Casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia). At Olokemeji this tree has only done comparatively well. Also an exotic, it is most useful for planting near the sea-side on sandy soil, and in places with a smaller rainfall. It will also stand a comparatively dry atmosphere. The wood of this tree is very hard, almost like Ironwood. It is sometimes known as the Australian Beef Tree. Its numerous small branches on the stem make the wood rather knotty and of less value for general construction work. However, its heating power as a firewood is very great. Amongst all the forest trees it is one which yields the greatest amount of acetic acid, which forms the basis of an explosive.

Another Australian tree which has been used to a lesser extent for Afforestation purposes is the Blue Gum of various kinds. Eucalyptus citriodora and E. amygdalina have proved to grow the quickest of any planted in Nigeria. Many others have been tried, but most have not survived. Specimen trees and small groups are seen as far apart as Onitsha, on the banks of the Niger, Ikassa, near the mouth of the Nun branch of the Niger, the Botanical Gardens, Calabar, the Olokemeji Arboretum and Forest Plantations, not to forget the streets of Lagos. In a similar way Casuarinas are seen near Government House at Calabar and in Lagos, besides the forest Arboretums and plantations.

Another exotic from India, Lagerstrœmia (Lagerstrœmia flos Reginæ), has grown well both on the banks of the Ogun and on poor laterite soil of the Olokemeji Forest Reserve. For the sake of the flowers alone it is worth planting to ornament a garden or the edge of a plantation. The masses of mauve flowers last a considerable time and blend most beautifully with the foliage and any green grass near by. Although of branching habit when planted 10 feet apart, if planted closer it will grow straighter and with cleaner bole. The timber is hard and very durable. So far this tree has proved a valuable introduction, especially for planting poor soils and river banks liable to inundation.

A later, though an exceedingly good introduction is that of the Satinwood (Swietenia chloroxylon), which gives promise in the Olokemeji Forest Reserve of making a valuable addition to the number of timber trees of indigenous and exotic origin. This tree yields the Ceylon satinwood, which is usually worth at least £12 per ton. The almost silvery-white tufted formation of the leaves is reminiscent almost of the Eucalyptus, though the leaf is rather smoother[175] and not quite so narrow in proportion to its length as most of the Eucalyptus family.

Fig. 32.—Cedrela odorata, seven years old, with Forest Office in background, Olokomeji.

Fig. 33.—Cedrela odorata, Cigar-box Cedar, girth 5 feet, twelve years old, Olokomeji Arboretum.

Fig. 34.—Teak (Tectona grandis), ten years old, Olokomeji Arboretum.

To face p. 174.

Some years ago the seeds of Pinus Mercusii were planted in several places, including those of higher elevation. Although it many cases the seed germinated, the seedlings subsequently died.

Another exotic, the Swamp Cypress or Bald Cypress, or, as it is known in England, the Deciduous Cypress (Taxodium distichum), was tried near Benin City some years ago for swamp planting. Here, as in the other case, the seeds germinated and the small trees reached the height of about a foot and then subsequently died. The swampy ground where they were planted may, however, have been rather too acid or sour for them. The climate, of course, was no doubt considerably hotter than that of the Southern States of the United States, in which country this tree is indigenous.

The original Spanish Mahogany, or Swietenia mahagoni, was intended for Afforestation purposes with a view to its yielding on the average a more highly valued wood than that of the African Mahogany. However, in Africa generally, and in the Olokemeji Arboretum, it has proved a very slow growth and more liable to attack by the leading-shoot borer than even the indigenous mahogany-tree.

For the comparatively dry laterite soil of the Olokemeji Forest Reserve, Indian Rosewood or Blackwood (Dalbergia latifolia) has proved a valuable introduction. Growing comparatively fast and of somewhat branching habit, it soon covers the ground. It is, of course, better in mixture with others in order to produce clean stems. Latterly the larger trees have been attacked by a borer and considerable damage has been done. Still, in spite of it the trees have gone on growing, and apparently are capable of outgrowing the damage without an enormous loss of increment. In all, several acres have been planted with this tree.

Indian Walnut (Albizzia Lebbek) has found a foremost place in the firewood plantation at Ibadan and Ede, as well as in the forest plantations at Olokemeji. Its rapid growth and comparative indifference to soil make it a comparatively valuable tree for Afforestation purposes. Although it is usually only considered suitable for firewood, there is no doubt that its wood can be used as a substitute for walnut, as it is in India. Already, in fact, it is largely a forest escape in Africa, and is found in many of the old farms and cultivated places. Its greyer, almost silvery-grey, foliage easily distinguishes it from that of Albizzia Brownii, which has larger leaves.

A South American exotic, the Lignum Vitæ (Guaiacum officinale), is found in isolated specimens in the Olokemeji Arboretum and forest plantations. With such a very slow-growing tree, which may show half an inch growth in a year, it is difficult to be patient and wait for the many years before it will attain even a size large enough from which[176] to cut the smallest bowl for a game of skittles or bowls. Its very yellow small foliage is most distinctive and not unlike box (Buxus sempervirens), but the leaf is flatter and does not curl like box.

One of the most valuable introductions in the forest plantations at Olokemeji and in the firewood plantations at Ibadan is the Siamese Cassia or Bombay Blackwood (Cassia Siamea). Almost indifferent as to soil and not requiring a heavy rainfall, and casting a heavy shade, it soon grows on the laterite, covers the ground, killing weeds, and rapidly attaining the size of a tree. In the plantations at Olokemeji, the trees reached a height of over 20 feet and a girth of about a foot in five years. It is one of the few trees that will thoroughly kill the Econ grass. The masses of yellow flowers which appear in the crown of the tree and also in the leader rather interrupt the height growth, but make a magnificent show at the end of the dry season. It continues to flower and fruit for the larger part of the year. Either as a firewood tree or as a timber tree, it should always be worthy of a place in all Afforestation areas where the rainfall is none too heavy. The hard, almost black wood is of value in India, so that it should prove of value in Nigeria when the trees are large enough for cutting into planks or boards. Amongst the exotic trees which have not yet found a place is the Trinkomali Wood (Berrya Ammomilla) and Indian Rose Chestnut or Ironwood (Mesua ferrua), seedlings which were obtained from seeds of the large trees in the Botanical Gardens at Victoria. If they grow well in Nigeria, the somewhat heavy and flexible Trinkomali Wood or Petwun and the Ironwood should both prove of value for local industrial work.

Although found as specimen trees in the Olokemeji Arboretum, Copaifera officinalis has not been formed in plantations, though small groups of the West African Gum Copal (Copaifera salikounda) are seen in the Ogba plantation of the Central Circle. Both these trees are doing very well, more especially the latter, which have reached a height of over 12 feet in six years. The former had produced some tears of gum three-quarters of an inch in diameter in the tenth year of its growth. In addition to these two, there is the Cameroon Gum Copal (Copaifera Demeusii), seedlings of which were obtained from the Botanical Gardens at Victoria. Considering that the last-named tree is indigenous in a territory so much closer to Nigeria than either of the first-named Gum Copals, it is highly probable that this one will grow better than either of the others. Up to the present it is not known, however, how the yield of the Gum Copal compares with either of the former. As far as West Africa is concerned, the Sierra Leone Gum Copal has proved to be the most prolific in this respect.

The Indian Almond (Terminalia catappa) is seen more as an avenue tree, mostly in towns such as Lagos, but also in the Mamu Forest Reserve. It is certainly one of the best shade trees for planting at[177] the side of roads. Its rather formal habit, with the almost even whorls of branches, fits in with the straightness and even width of a road. By many it is not realized that the nuts can be comparatively easily cracked and the kernel inside is good to eat.

Michelia champaca is another most suitable tree for avenues. The chestnut-like leaf and the large, almost magnolia-like flowers are of a white colour, giving it a “distinguished” appearance such as is necessary for a roadside tree. The flowers, too, are used for making scent.

Both as a shade tree and for its gum the Balsam of Peru (Toluifera Pereiræ) is also worthy of a place both in avenues and in plantations. Some seedlings were obtained from the Botanical Gardens at Pretoria, where the tree has grown comparatively well. Not so suitable for plantations apparently at Olokemeji is the Sugar Palm (Arenga saccharifera). However, in isolated places small plantations have been made with the Sago Palm (Corypha elata), such as in the swamp opposite Calabar and the small grove of the Betel Nut Palm (Areca catechu) near Lagos. Both these give promise of being useful acquisitions to the palms of economic use in Africa.

Before leaving the exotic trees, mention must be made of the Thuya (Thuya occidentalis), which were obtained from the Canary Islands by Major Cockburn and planted on the hill at Obubra. Although somewhat slow growing, they have thrived in that climate and do not suffer from disease. This is the only example of a Conifer which has been successfully introduced into Nigeria.

Amongst the other indigenous trees of which plantations have been made there is the Cedar Mahogany (Pseudocedrela Kotschyi), Emi gbegiri, Yoruba, which apparently grows but slowly in Olokemeji. It is much the same with the self-sown seedlings and with root suckers, both of which have proved disappointingly slow in that locality.

Then also at Olokemeji we have the dry-zone Mahogany, Khaya Senegalensis, Oganwo of the Yorubas and Ogwangu of the Benis, growing in a small plantation and raised from seed brought by H. N. Thompson, Esq., from the Shaki district in 1910. So far the growth has been comparatively rapid, though the tree is occasionally attacked by the leading-shoot borer, which makes it fork comparatively low down.

Of the African Walnut and the Long-capsuled Mahogany, Lovoa Klaineana and Entandrophragma Candollei, most isolated specimens and groups appear to have been planted in the leased areas of Benin. In addition to these, some other specimens and small plantations are found in the Calabar, Degama, Benin and Olokemeji Arboretums, as well as in the plantations of the Ogba and Olokemeji. Thus far only the Long-capsuled Mahogany has been planted in these; the difficulty of obtaining seed of the African Walnut has precluded its wider distribution[178] in the various plantations. Long-capsuled Mahogany grows very fast, usually with an undivided stem and a big tuft of long pinnate leaves near the top of the tree. Stump shoots form very readily and soon attain a large size, as is noticeable in the specimen in the Benin Arboretum.

The plantations of Ebony (Diospyros mespiliformis), Kanran of the Yorubas, have been made in the Olokemeji Forest Reserve. Although, of course, very slow growing, it demands further attention, as it yields a good black ebony.

Amongst the soft woods there are plantations of Triplochiton Nigericum, Arere of the Yorubas and Obechi of the Benis, in the Olokemeji Forest Reserve. At first growing rather slowly, they bid fair to prove one of the most rapid growing trees. A mixture where teak was introduced to fill up the blanks will be interesting to watch in its future development, as to whether the teak will eventually outgrow the forest maple.

Although the firewood plantations at Ibadan and certain parts of the plantations of Olokemeji have been filled up with West African Walnut (Albizzia Brownii), Ayinre Bonabona of the Yorubas, they will prove probably of greater value for the production of timber than for firewood. However, as a firewood tree it has yielded several cords of wood from one tree after only seven years of growth. So far it has certainly proved to be the tree which produces the greatest amount of firewood in the shortest period of time. It sprouts well from the stump, so that for a time its reproduction is very easy and assured.

The Oil Bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla), Apara of the Yorubas and Opaga of the Benis, is found chiefly reproduced artificially, either by being sown at stake or planted along the sides of the roads in the Owerri and Benin provinces. Considering the hardness of the wood, the tree grows not excessively slowly, though, of course, compared to a softwood it is slow.

Camwood (Pterocarpus Osun), Osun by the Yorubas, Ume by the Benis, has found a place in the Mamu Forest Reserve, its congener Pterocarpus Indicus having been planted in the Olokemeji Forest Reserve. However, as far as the size and habit of growth is concerned, the African Redwood or Barwood appears to be much superior to the Indian Paduak. The latter usually soon develops a triple stem with many small side-branches, whereas the African species always shows an undivided stem. In rate of growth “Osun” seems to be rather slow compared to many other trees. Self-sown seedlings come up readily in suitable localities, such as the Ikrigon Reserve, and on the whole develop more quickly. Anyhow, the continual demand in increasing amounts of this red dye-wood necessitates the careful preservation of the tree in the forest, as well as its continual reproduction by natural regeneration or plantations in the Forest Reserve.

[179]Amongst the Mamu Forest Plantations there is that of African Oak (Afzelia Africana), Apa (Yoruba), Aligna (Benin), one of the few survivals of the efforts made to reproduce this tree artificially. The many insect and rodent enemies give isolated plantation seedlings very little chance to develop.

Although Shea Butter (Butyrospermum Parkii), Emi Ori or Emigidi (Yoruba), has been tried as a plantation tree, the germination of the nuts is very poor, and the rodents attack them unmercifully. Apparently root-suckers form the chief means of reproduction for this tree. They are very prevalent and very persistent once they have sprouted. The forest fires destroy a great deal of the flower in the early part of the year, preventing formation of the fruit, and thus the means of reproduction by seed is very much reduced. The improvement in trees protected from fire at Olokemeji is most marked.

At Degema there is a plantation of Mimusops Djave (?), or Aganokwi of the Benis, which shows comparatively fast growth; in eleven years the trees had reached a height of about 25 feet and a girth of 2 feet 6 inches. Although it sprouts well from the stump, it is easier to raise from seed, but the seedlings require great care in transplanting.

At Olokemeji, Shinglewood (Terminalia Superba), Afara, by the Yorubas and Egoyn Nufwa by the Benis, is being tried in a mixed plantation. The growth has been rapid, and would probably surpass that of teak after the first five years.

Over considerable areas of the Olokemeji and the Ibadan plantations the Yoruba Chewstick, or Ayin of the Yorubas (Anogeissus leiocarpus), has been planted. Its growth has been moderately rapid, reaching a height of about 8 feet in four years. In addition to the value of its wood both as a chewstick and from the fact that a mordant for dyes can be made from its ashes, the young plant kills all the Econ grass growing round it with its leaf fall. This makes the tree one of the most advantageous for Afforestation purposes. Its light-green foliage and delicate, graceful build, and slender bole and branches, make it also valuable as an avenue tree in the dryer parts of the country. In its similarity to the European birch it might almost be called the birch of Africa.

With the Dika Nut (Irvingia Barteri), Oro by the Yorubas and Okherli by the Benis, small sample plots have been made in the Mamu Reserve and isolated specimens planted near the Calabar Arboretum.

Although not for Afforestation purposes but for the production of Palm Wine, Raffia vinifera, Ako by the Yoruba, Augor by the Benis, has been planted and seeds distributed amongst the villagers of the upper parts of the Cross River districts. When these are grown there will not be such a demand for cutting down the oil-palm-tree for making palm wine as there is at the present time.

[180]Allowing only a value of 3d. per tree on all the trees planted during the last fifteen years, all the mahoganies and plantations are worth £240,000.

In two circles and parts of a third a great deal of work of an Afforestation nature was undertaken years before any actual forest plantation could be made. These are the communal rubber plantations of the Ireh Rubber (Funtumia elastica). In the Central Circle, near over 700 villages and towns, plantations varying from a hundred plants to ones covering several acres and containing many thousands, were made, aggregating in all the setting out of over a million trees in a period of about five years. In the Eastern Circle, in over a hundred villages, and in the Ondo and Western Circles over two hundred village plantations were made. Subsequently Para Rubber (Hevea Braziliensis) was added and substituted for the Funtumia wherever the climate was suitable for it. Now the communities concerned have a very valuable asset, which they can tap from year to year and augment at their leisure. Whatever happens to the forest or the immediate neighbourhood of the village, there will at any rate remain the rubber plantation, giving grateful shade to the roadsides and the ground near the villages. In one case a village planted over 1,200 Para rubber-trees, which even as a commercial asset are by no means to be despised.

In addition to these efforts on the part of the natives, acting under the advice and guidance of the Forest Department, there are the numerous rubber plantations in all the Forest Reserves. In the earlier days these were planted with Funtumia, where, for instance, in the Mamu Forest Reserve nearly one square mile of land is planted with this tree.

Then, again, there are the district plantations, more especially in the Eastern Circle, where in many cases Para Rubber was planted instead of Funtumia. These areas are for the most part smaller than those of the Forest Reserve or Communal Plantations. They served more as demonstration areas to show how rubber would grow in that locality.

Furthermore, near almost each native court in the Eastern Circle rubber plantations, in many cases of Para and in others of Funtumia, were made.

The general cost of the Communal District and Native Court Plantation was practically limited to the amount involved in payment of the native Forest staff. These men, however, had other duties to perform, and on the average certainly not more than one-third of their time was occupied in the making of these plantations. For the making of the other plantations of the Forest Reserve about £2,500, or sometimes £3,000, has been spent annually in making them and in the cost of their upkeep once they have been made. Owing to the long dry season in Nigeria the number of plants failing to survive[181] it is somewhat high, and this very considerably increases the cost of the final establishment of the plantation. For some years the cost in many cases amounted to £10 per acre for the first year and £1 or £2 for subsequent years, for the cost of “beating up” and keeping the plantations clean. With the greater experience gained both in regard to the habits of the different trees and in the methods of reproduction most suitable to various parts of Nigeria, the cost has been somewhat lessened. However, even so, the cost compared to European or English plantations is not abnormally high. In Africa there is no land to buy, and no wire-netting is needed for the plantations, and the land usually planted has not a “letting” or “sporting” value, as it has in England. The buying out or compensating of the native rights of the usufruct of the soil is not so very expensive, especially when it is spread over comparatively large areas, as it usually is in West Africa. Then, again, even with the cost of £10 per acre, the total value of a crop after fifty or sixty years would certainly not be less than 3s. per cubic foot of the timber, which thus allows ample margin for 5 per cent. compound interest on the original outlay, and a profit besides. In many cases the timber would be worth a great deal more, and also the value of the intermediate thinnings is not inconsiderable. Both these factors have been left out of the account, in order not to in any way exaggerate or make too optimistic estimates of the value of a forest plantation. But beyond the financial side of the value of forest plantations, more especially in a tropical country like Nigeria, is the very valuable indirect effect they have on the whole welfare of the country.

First of all, plantations in forest groves improve and beautify a locality, whether on the level or amongst hills.

In the second place, the forest induces a greater rainfall in itself and its immediate vicinity.

Then the rainfall which actually falls in the forest is partly re-evaporated to fall again, thus making extra rainfall, and also the rain which actually reaches the ground in the forest is only gradually absorbed, thus making the flow of springs and rivers regular.

Both on the level and especially on slopes, a covering of trees, such as a forest, hinders the washing away of the surface soil or tilth of the land.

Forest trees only require one-twelth of the mineral matter out of the soil that an agricultural crop does, covering the same area.

In a forest plantation there is always greater humidity in the air, and thus many plants of economic value, such as cocoa, can grow in its vicinity, which would otherwise not be possible to be grown in that locality.

A forest acts as a moderating influence on the temperature of the air, being lower inside the forest than outside, when the sun is very[182] hot. Conversely, when it is cold outside in the “harmattan” season it is warmer in the forest.

Nearer the interior of the forest certain better grasses and pasture are found, which are of incalculable value, in a drought, to the cattle in that locality.

During the long period of the rotation, usually at least 60 or 80 years, in most forests there are large accumulations of leaf mould or litter, which on occasion can be used in reasonable quantities for manuring neighbouring agricultural lands. This is of incalculable benefit where the ground outside the forest is comparatively poor and dry.

It has been proved also that in these long forest rotations the mineral rock and subsoil have time to weather, and add further mineral matter to the enrichment of the soil.

The forest, too, provides grateful shelter and sanctuary for game animals and birds of all kinds, thus providing, especially in Africa, the largest source of meat which the native has.

When all these indirect advantages and good effects of the forest are added together and a definite value put on them, and then considered in addition to all the timber and firewood the forest produces, it will be seen how wonderfully and providentially beneficial the forests really are, and also how absolutely essential they are in a country like Africa.

Just as effective, and cheaper, except perhaps as regards time, than the artificially made forest plantation, are the protected forests; even in the worst case, starting with a poor country growth and small dry-zone shrubs and trees, after ten years there is a compact, close-growth, medium-sized tree with straightened stem and less branching habit, and the ground comparatively free from grass. During a further period this forest can be thinned out by removing the poorer shrubs and trees and allowing seedlings of more valuable species to come up. They will often do this in the shade of poorer and more hardy trees. Still later, as the soil-moisture conditions improve, the humidity increases as well as the rainfall; still other species come in or can be introduced artificially. Eventually, by the end of the first rotation there is probably quite a different forest to that in existence at the time of the annual grass-fires, and one which is more akin to the original forests before the advent of Man with his firestick.

Quite apart from any money which has been spent on direct forest plantations, the indirect effect of the protection afforded to the trees in the various forest reserves is of almost incalculable value. If the figure should be calculated out even at a low rate of only £1 per acre, then the total value is £768,000 for the Reserves already made. Again, considering this result has only been attained after[184] about fifteen years’ work, it will only go to show the vast potentialities and resources that may be eventually created, or preserved from destruction, in Nigeria.

MEASUREMENTS OF PLANTED TREES IN THE OLOKEMEJI RESERVE